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DR. A; ADAM'S 



RUDIMENTS 



LATIN AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

WITH NUMEROUS 

EXPANSIONS AND ADDITIONS, 

DESIGNED 

TO MAKE THE WORK MORE ELEMENTARY AND COMPLETE, AND 

TO FACILITATE THE ACaUISITION OF A THOROUGH 

KNOWLEDGE OF THE LATIN LANGUAGE. 



BY JAMES D. JOHNSON, A. M. 

Grammatice est ars, necessaria pueris, jucunda senibus, dulcis secretorum come* 
et qu* vel sola omni studiorum genere plus habet operis, quam osteniat^ 
Ne quis igxtur tanquam . parva fastidiat Grammatices elemL™ ^TleZl 
velut sacn hujus adeuntibus, apparebit multa rerum subtilitas, qL non modo 



IMPROVEMENTS ON THE THIRD NEW-YORK, FROM THE LAST 
ENGLISH EDITION OF ADAM'S. 






PUBLISHED BY KEY & MELKE, 175 MARKET-ST. 

STEREOTYPED BY J. HOWE. 

1831. 



CONTENTS. 



Page 
Part I. Orthography, which treats 

of Letters, 9 

Diphthongs 11 

Syllables £-....' ib. 

Part II. Etymology, which treats of 

Words 12 

Division of Words or Parts of Speech 13 

The Article ;— wanting in Latin ib. 

I. Noun or Substantive 14 

English Nouns w . . . . 15 

Latin Nouns 16 

Declension of Nouns ib. 

Gender of Nouns 17 

First Declension 20 

Second Declension 22 

Third Declension 26 

Fourth Declension 42 

Fifth Declension 43 

Coupled Compound Nouns 44 

Irregular Nouns ib. 

Division of Nouns, according to their 

signification and derivation 50 

Adjective 52 

Numeral Adjectives • • 57 

Comparison of Adjectives 60 

II. Pronoun 62 

English Pronouns ib. 

Latin Pronouns 63 

1. Simple Latin Pronouns ib. 

2. Compound Latin Pronouns 67 

III. Verb 69 

English Verbs 71 

Conjugation of Latin Verbs 75 

First Conjugation 80 

Second Conjugation 85 

Third Conjugation - 86 

Fourth Conjugation 89 

Formation of the different parts of 

Latin Verbs 90 

Signification of the different Tenses. 93 

Verbs of the First Conjugation 96 

" " Second do 97 

" Third do 100 

'• Fourth do 110 

Deponent and Common Verbs Ill 

Irregular Verbs 116 

Defective Verbs 123 

Impersonal Verbs 125 

Redundant Verbs 127 

Obsolete Conjugation 128 

Derivation and Composition of Verbs 129 

IV. Participle- 130 

V. Adverb 132 

VI. Preposition 135 

VII. Interjection 137 

VIII. Conjunction ib. 

Part III. Syntax, or Construction, 
which treats of Sentences, 137 

Division of Sentences into Simple and 
Compound ib. 

I. Simple Sentences 140 

Concord or Agreement of Words in 
Simple Sentences ib. 



Page 
Government of Words in Simple Sen- 

tences 144 

I. Government pf Substantives ib. 

II. Government of Adjectives 146 

III. Government of Verbs 151 

1. Verbs governing one case ib. 

2. Verbs governing two cases 157 

Construction of Passive Verbs 160 

" " of Impersonal Verbs ... 161 

" of the Infinitive 163 

" " of Participles, &c 164 

Construction of Gerunds 165 

" " of Supines 167 

" " of Adverbs ib. 

Government of Adverbs . . > . . .^ 169 

Construction of Prepositions 170 

" " of Circumstances. ..... 174 

1. Price ib. 

2. Manner and Cause 175 

3. Place ib. 

4. Measure and Distance 177 

5. Time 178 

Compound Sentences 179 

Sentences are compounded by Rela- 
tives and Conjunctions ib. 

Constructions of Relatives ib. 

" " of Conjunctions 181 

" " of Comparatives 186 

The Ablative Absolute 187 

Appendix to Syntax : containing 

I. Various Signification and Con- 
struction of Verbs 190 

II. Figurative Construction, or Fig- 
ures of Syntax 204 

IIT. Analysis and Translation 207 

IV. Different Kinds of Style 210 

V. Figures of Rhetoric 211 

1. Figures of Words or Tropes ib. 

2. Repetition of Words 215 

3. Figures of Thought 216 

Part IV. Prosody, which treats of the 
Quantity of Syllables, of Accent, and 
Verse, 219 

I. Quantity of Syllables ib. 

1. Quantity of first and middle Syl- 
lables 221 

2. Quantity of final Syllables 227 

3. Quantity of Derivatives and 
Compounds 230 

II. Accent 232 

III. Verse 233 

The measuring of Verses by Feet, or 

Scanning ib. 

Different kinds of Verse 234 

Figures in Scanning 238 

Different kinds of Poems 241 

Combination of Verses in Poems ib. 

Different kinds of Verse in Horace 

and Buchanan 242 

English Verse 245 

Appendix.— Punctuation, Capitals, 
Division of Months, Coins, &c 248 



ADAM'S PREFACE. 



The Compiler was first led, at an early period of life, to think 
of composing this book, by observing the hurtful effects of teaching 
boys Grammar Rules in Latin verse, which they did not under- 
stand ; while they were ignorant, not only of the principles of that 
language, but also of those of their mother-tongue. Experience 
has since afforded him the most convincing proofs of the impro- 
priety of this practice ; and his opinion has been still further con- 
firmed by perusing the writings of the old grammarians, and of 
the most eminent among the moderns. The old grammarians, 
Charisius, Diomedes, Priscianus, Probus, Donatus, Servius, 
Victorinus, Augustinus, Cassiodorus, Macrobius, Beda, Alcui- 
nus,* &c. have no verse rules: and so in later times, Perotte, 
Manutius, Erasmus, Valerius, Buchanan, Milton, &c. Nicolaus 
Perotte was one of the chief restorers of learning in the fifteenth 
century. He died archbishop of Siponto in 1480. The Com- 
piler has a copy of the first edition of his grammar, printed at 
Brescia, anno 1474. It is composed by way of question and an- 
swer, but without any verse rules. — Soon after the invention of 
printing, and perhaps before, for the Compiler has not been able 
to ascertain the precise period, the custom was introduced of 
expressing the principles of almost every art and science in Latin 
and Greek verse. The rules of logic, and even the aphorisms of 
Hippocrates, were taught in this manner. Among the versifiers 
of Latin grammar, Despauter and Lily were the most conspicu- 
ous. The first complete edition of Despauter's Grammar was 
printed at Cologne, anno 1522 ; his Syntax had been published 
anno 1509. Lily was made first master of St. Paul's school in 
London, by Dr. Colet, its founder, anno 1510; so that he was 
contemporary with Despauter. His grammar was appointed by an 
act which is still in force, to be taught in the established schools of 
England. Various attempts were afterwards made by different 
authors, as, Sanctius, Alvarus, Scioppius, Kirkwood, Watt, Rud- 
diman, &c\ to improve on the plan of Despauter and Lily ; but 
with little success. The truth is, it seems impracticable to ex- 

* Terentianus Maurus, a learned grammarian, by birth an African, 
who is supposed to have lived under Trajan, and wrote in verse, treats only 
of poetry 



4 PREFACE. 

press with sufficient perspicuity the principles of grammar in 
Latin verse ; and it appears strange, that when scholastic jargon 
is exploded from elementary hooks on other sciences, it should he 
retained by public authority, where it ought never to have been 
admitted, in Latin grammars for children. But such is the force 
of habit and attachment to established modes, that we go on in 
the use of them, without thinking whether they be founded in 
reason or not. When there are a great many exceptions from a 
general rule, whatever can assist the memory is no doubt usefuL 
On this account the principal rules for the genders of nouns, &a 
are here subjoined, for local reasons, from Ruddiman's Grammar ; 
although many of them are by no means adapted to the capacity 
of boys : and more of them are inserted, in compliance with the 
opinion of others, than the Compiler judges necessary.* They 
are printed at the end of the book; and such as choose it, may 
have Lily's rules, Watt's rules, or any other, substituted in their 
place. 

The authors of the Nouvelle Methode, or Port Royal Grant' 
mar in France, judging it as absurd to teach Latin by rules in 
Latin verse, as to teach Greek by rules in Greek verse, or He- 
brew by rules in Hebrew, composed the rules of Latin grammar 
in French verse. Some authors in England, as Clarke, Philips, 
&c. have imitated their example. But this plan has not in either 
country been much followed. Nothing can be more uncouth than 
such versification. So that Latin rules, on the whole, seem pre- 
ferable. However this may be, the following remarks concerning 
the method of teaching Latin, it is hoped, will not be deemed 
improper. 

When the learner is once master of the inflexion of nouns and 
verbs, he should be exercised in getting by heart words and 
phrases, while at the same time he is employed in reading some 
easy author, and in turning plain sentences from English into 
Latin. The sooner he can be brought to write part of his exer- 
cises, the better ; but he should never be obliged to get grammar 
rules, in Latin verse, till he is capable of understanding them by 
himself: because, though the teacher may explain them, the 
scholar will soon forget the interpretation, and repeat the words 
merely by rote, without attending to their meaning. Nor should 
he be forced to get rules in Latin verse, which may be remem- 
bered equally well in English prose. Rules in verse are only 
useful when they assist the memory ; as when there is a number 
of exceptions from a general rule, where alone they are indeed 

* Not printed in this new edition. 



PREFACE. 5 

of advantage : and even here, perhaps, any chime of words might 
answer the purpose as well as Latin hexameters. It is of im- 
portance, when the rule is long, that the learner be accustomed to 
repeat no more of it than is strictly applicable to the word or phrase 
in question. The repetition of the whole is a useless waste of time. 
The great object ought to be, to bring the learner, in as short time 
as possible, to join without hesitation an adjective with a substan- 
tive in any case, number, or degree of comparison ; and in like 
manner to touch upon any part of a verb, and tell readily by what 
case any adjective, verb, or preposition, is followed. The facility 
practice alone can teach, and the method of acquiring it, must in 
all languages be much the same. 

The niceties of construction, the figures of syntax, and the 
other parts of grammar, should be occasionally taught, as the 
learner proceeds in reading the more difficult authors. 

As the ancient Romans joined the grammar of their own lan- 
guage with that of the Greek: so we ought to connect the study 
of English grammar with that of the Latin ; and when the learner 
properly understands Latin grammar, he ought to join with it the 
study of the Greek : the knowledge of both these languages being 
requisite for the thorough understanding of the English. This is 
the practice in England, and other countries, where the best 
Greek and Latin scholars are formed. It is particularly neces- 
sary in Scotland to pay attention to the English, in conjunction 
with the Latin, as by neglecting it, boys at school learn many 
improprieties in point of grammar, as well as of pronunciation, 
which it is difficult in after life to correct.* This attention is 
less requisite in England : though even there, in the opinion of 
Dr. Lowth, to use his own words, "the connexion of the English 
with the Latin grammar, if it could be introduced into schools, 
might be of good service." 

* Let teachers in the United States heed this remark of Dr. Adam's, and 
keep their pupils " to the English in conjunction with the Latin." — Ep. 



▲ 2 



PREFACE 

TO 

JOHNSONS ADAMS. 



The frequent change of Latin grammars in our schools and 
colleges, proves pretty conclusively that they are incomplete and 
unsatisfactory. And while the diversity used by different instruct- 
ors, needlessly swells the expense and retards the progress of 
the pupil in his preparatory course ; economy and the best interests 
of classic learning, earnestly demand some remedy for these evils. 
But individual dictation or opposition to the current of established 
usage on this subject, would be equally presumptuous and unavail- 
ing. You may tell parents and guardians of the waste of money, 
time, and mind, involved in the change of elementary books 
generally followed by every change in teachers; but custom, 
ignorance, prejudice, and selfishness array themselves successfully 
against you, and the child not unfrequently is condemned to all 
the drudgery and detriment incident to a revolution for the worse. 
And it seems as if nothing but the interposition of authorities 
regularly constituted from all departments of the republic ^of 
letters in our union, can effectually regulate this important matter. 
Such a body might select and sanction the best standard authors, 
as text-books adapted to the whole academic course, and thereby 
secure to them uniformity and excellence ; and they might also 
in a great degree check that cacoethes scribendi, which incum- 
bers science, by a worse than useless multiplication of books. 
Until our universities and minor institutions shall delegate such a 
congress of literati, the evil cannot be removed ; and classic lite- 
rature must labor much for want of more uniformity and perfec- 
tion in every elementary treatise, and especially in grammars. 
Individual exertion, however, may not be entirely lost, if it be 
applied to any good work already extensively patronized, so as 
to combine in that, without material alteration in its arrangement,* 
the best of such valuable matter, as gives popularity to the choice 
works of a like kind. With this view, the edition of Adam's now 
under consideration was planned and partly executed, ten or 

* So trivial is the change in arrangement, that students of the same class 
may without inconvenience use this with any previous edition of Adam's. 



EDITOR S PREFACE. 7 

twelve years ago; and though somewhat anticipated by Mr. Gould's 
estimable edition of 1825, yet it is believed so little interfered 
with in its main design, as not to lessen the necessity and value 
of filling up the original outline, with all the fullness and minute- 
ness of detail at first proposed. Indeed, that some likeness should 
exist in works of this kind, is not wonderful ; since streams from 
the same fountains must naturally resemble each other. And 
besides, a compiler aims not at originality, but at increased utility. 
The subjoined expansions and additions have been suggested, and 
proved useful, during a long course of teaching. They are de- 
signed both to make the acquisition of Latin more easy, and 
still to leave ample scope for that invigorating exercise of the 
comparing and other faculties of the opening mind, which the 
study of the languages is so eminently and exclusively qualified 
to give. There is a brevity in some of our Latin grammars, and 
a prolixity in others, that equally perplex and obscure. Between 
these, a just medium, as far as possible, ought to be preserved ; so 
that the beginner may neither be disheartened by too much con- 
ciseness, nor rendered indolent by too much simplicity and plain- 
ness. And as most students seldom ever look beyond the gram- 
mar they first learn, it is of the utmost consequence that that 
should be sufficiently full to give them a critical knowledge of the 
structure and peculiarities of the Latin language; and at the 
same time so elemental as to suit the capacity of the youngest 
scholar. The primary course should comprise the larger print, 
and gradual advances be made on the more critical parts as the 
pupil grows in knowledge, until he is perfect master of the whole. 
For if you would make profound scholars, keep them to First 
Principles, and let the grammar be daily studied through the 
whole course, a due proportion of English grammar and parsing 
being interlarded. 

The principal variations in this edition are as follows : A view 
of some of the vowel sounds, and also of the powers of a few 
other letters; additional rules for syllabication; a general rule 
for the neuter gender. The English is affixed to several exam- 
ples of nouns, pronouns, and verbs, leaving the pupil to the mental 
discipline requisite to English the rest. Many Greek as well as 
Latin nouns of peculiar construction are declined at length. Exam- 
ples are added to the paradigms of the third, and one to that of 
the fifth declension. An article is given on coupled compound 
nouns. An enlarged account of numeral letters is transferred 
from the appendix to the chapter on numeral adjectives, that the 
pupil may learn them as early as possible. 



8 editor's preface. 

The import of some pronouns is given, and a few of the more 
difficult compound ones declined. To the third conjugation is 
added a paradigm of its verbs in io, as far as they differ from 
lego. Rules full and simple are given for forming the verb from 
the present and perfect Indie, active, and supine in um. Lator 
is declined at length, and a synopsis given of the modes and 
tenses of deponent examples in the other three conjugations. By 
a new arrangement, the defective verbs are easier to learn. Edo, 
to eat, is declined as far as it is redundant. Throughout the 
whole, the vowel quantity in many words has been marked, and 
numerous typographical errors of long standing have been cor- 
rected. 

Rules and explanations have been interspersed through the 
prosody ; the appendix enlarged by remarks, with a table show- 
ing the correspondence of the Roman with our own method of 
reckoning the days of the month ; and lastly, a short chapter on 
Roman coins has been added, exhibiting the value of a few of them 
in Sterling and Federal money. For these variations in the main, 
selections have been made from approved current sources, as well 
as from those excellent laid by works, whose rich materials con- 
stitute most of the bone and sinew of the whole race of Latin 
grammars now in vogue. And in presenting this grammar to the 
community, and thereby adding to the multitude that almost con- 
tinuously pour from the press without apparent reason ; no other 
apology seems necessary than what may be found in the incessant 
calls of an experience of fourteen years' teaching, for just such 
helps as it affords. And if the cause of sound learning shall be 
advanced by this humble effort to facilitate the teaching and acqui- 
sition of a language the vehicle of much sacred and important 
knowledge, its end will be answered, and the labor not prove 
fruitless. Under these circumstances, and for these purposes, 
with whatever claims to patronage it may possess, this grammar 
now stands at the tribunal of an intelligent public, with full con- 
fidence that, after an impartial examination, its adoption or rejec- 
tion will ultimately rest upon this sound principle, 

" Si quid novisti, rectius istis, * 

Candidus imperti : si non, his utere mecum." 

Oxford, North Carolina, October 5, 1830. 



THE 

RUDIMENTS 

OF 

LATIN AND ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



GRAMMAR is the art of speaking and writing correctly. 

Latin or English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing 
the Latin or the English language correctly. 

The Rudiments of Grammar are plain and easy instructions, 
teaching beginners the first principles and rules of it. 

Grammar treats of sentences, and the several parts of which 
they are compounded. 

Sentences consist of words : Words consist of one or more 
* syllables : Syllables of one or more letters. So that Letters, 
Syllables, Words, and Sentences, make up the whole subject 
of Grammar. 

LETTERS. 

A letter is the mark of a sound, or of an articulation of 
sound. 

That part of Grammar which treats of letters, is called 
Orthography, 

The letters in Latin are twenty-five : A, a ; B, b ; C, c ; 
D,d; E,e; F, f ; G, g; H ; h ; I,i; J, j ; K,k; L, 1; M,m; 
N, n; 0,o; P, p; Q,q; R,r; S, s; T, t; U,u; V,v; X, x; 
Y,y; Z, z. 

In English, there is one letter more, namely, W, 10. 

Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 

Six are vowels ; a, e, i, o, u, y.* All the rest are 
consonants. 

A vowel makes a full sound by itself; as, a, e. 

A consonant cannot make a perfect sound with- 
out a vowel ; as, 6, d. 

A vowel is properly called a simple sound ; and the sounds 
formed by the concourse of vowels and consonants, articulate 
sounds. 



* There can be no syllable without a vowel. 



10 LETTERS. 

The Latin vowels have each a long and a short sound — Thus : 

a is sounded short like a in pan, fan : or long like a in 
spar, arm, basin. 

e is short like e in pen : and long like e in he, free. 

i is short like i in fin, bird, virtue : long like i in line, 
dire. 

o is short like o in spot, sot : long like o in rote, vote. 

u is short like u mhut, under : long like u in flute, mule. 

y* is short like y in syncope : long like y in sythe. 

Consonants are divided into Mutes, Semi- Vowels, and Double 
Consonants. 

A mute is so called, because it entirely stops the passage 
of the voice ; as, p, in ap. 

The mutes are p, b ; t, d ; c, k, q, and g : but b, d, and g, 
perhaps may more properly be termed Semi-mutes. 

A semi-vowel, or half vowel, does not entirely stop the pas- 
sage of the voice ; thus, al. 

The semi-vowels are, I, m, n, r, s, f. The first four of 
these are also called Liquids, particularly I and r ; because 
they flow softly and easily after a mute in the same syllable; 
as, bla, stra. 

The mutes and semi-vowels may be thus distinguished. In 
naming the mutes, the vowel is put after them ; as pe, be, &c. 
but in naming the semi-vowels, the vowel is put before them ; 
as, el, em, &c. 

Z seems not to be a double consonant in English. It has 
the same relation to s, as v has to f, being sounded somewhat 
more softly. 

In Latin %, and likewise k and y, are found only in words 
derived from the Greek. 

C sounds hard, like Jc, before a, o, u, I, r ; as, cado, conor ; 
but commonly soft like s, before e, i, y, <b, &, and an apostrophe 
noting e cut off: as, deer, cibus, &c. 

G usually sounds soft like j, before e, i, y, a, ce, and an 
apostrophe noting e cut off; or before another g followed by e ; 
as, gyrus, agger > trag&dia : but hard before a, o, u, I, and r, 
like the English g in gum, go, get; as, gustus, ganeo. 



'* These vowels have other varieties of sound, as they have in English; and may 
in general be truly sounded by following the analogy of our language. 

Though there is much diversity in the pronunciation of the a in Latin words, yet 
perhaps the prevailing pronunciation in our country and on the continent of Europe, 
is like a broad, as in army, marrow, far; or the Italian a in father. But the true 
pronunciation of the Latin tongue being lost, and all nations pronouncing it as they 
do their own, many classic teachers adopt English analogy as their standard in pro- 
nouncing Latin ; and subject the letter a to such rules as regulate its sound in Eng- 
lish. Thus every accented a, ending a syllable, is pronounced by such teachers like 
a in flavor, caper: but a, ending an unaccented syllable, has the obscure sound of a 
in farmer. 



DIPHTHONGS AND SYLLABLES. 11 

Ti when a vowel follows, sounds like shi ; as, Natio, quoties ; 
except when it begins a word; as, Tiara; and when s or x 
comes immediately before it, as questio, mixtio, istius; and in 
infinitives ending in er by paragoge ; as, mittier; and in Greek 
derived words ; as, politia ; and also when the accent is on the 
vowel following the t ; as, satietas* 

Y in English is sometimes a consonant, as in youth. 

H by some is not accounted a letter, but only a breathing. 

DIPHTHONGS. 

A diphthong is two vowels joined in one sound. 

If the sound of both voxels be distinctly heard, it is called 
a Proper Diphthong ; if not, an Improper Diphthong. 

The proper diphthongs in Latin are commonly reckoned 
three ; au, eu, ei ; as in aurum, Eurus, omneis. To these 
some, not improperly, add other three ; namely, ai, as in Maia; 
oi, as in Troia ; and ui, as in Harpuia, or in cui, and huic, 
when pronounced as monosyllables. 

The improper diphthongs in Latin are two ; ae, or when 
the vowels are written together, <b ; as, aetas, or cetas ; oe, or 
ce; as poena, or pama; in both of which the sound of the e 
only is heard. The ancients commonly wrote the vowels 
separately ; thus, actas, poena. 

The English language abounds with improper diphthongs, 
the just pronunciation of which, practice alone can teach. In 
some words derived from the French, there are three vowels 
in the same syllable, but two of them only are sounded ; as 
in beauty, lieutenant. 

SYLLABLES. 

A syllable is the sound of one letter, or of several letters, 
pronounced by one impulse of the voice ; as, a, to, strength. 

In every word there are as many syllables as there are dis- 
tinct sounds : as, in-fal-li-bi-li-ty. 

In Latin there are as many syllables in a word, as there are 
vowels or diphthongs in it ; unless when u with any other 
vowel comes after g, q, or s, as in lingua, qui, suadeo; where 
the two vowels are not reckoned a diphthong, because the 
sound of the u vanishes, or is little heard. 

Words consisting of one syllable are called Monosyllables; 
of two, Dissyllables ; and of more than two, Polysyllables. 
But r 11 words of more than one syllable are commonly called 
Polysyllables. 

* Some contend that ti before a vowel, as in justilia, should always be pronounced 
as it is in Miltiades, Tiaras, &c. 



12 WORDS. 

In dividing words into syllables, we are chiefly to be directed 
by the ear. Compound words should be divided into the parts 
of which they are made up, so as to keep these parts distinct ; 
as, up-on, with-out, &c. and so in Latin words, db-utor, in-ops, 
propter-ea, et-enim, vel-ut, &c. In like manner, when a syl- 
lable is added in the formation of the English verb, as, lov-ed> 
lov-ing, lov-eih, will-ing, &c. But more particularly, 

1. A consonant between two vowels, belongs to the latter; 
as, te-go, dd-tis ; x, and sometimes p, being excepted. 

2. Two non-diphthongal vowels together must be divided ; 
as De-us, cre-as, ca-pi-o, 

3. Two consonants found together in the middle of a word 
must be divided ; as, par-tes, red-do ; unless the latter of the 
two be I or r, when they must both be joined to the following 
vowel ; as, a-gros, li-brl. 

Observe. A long syllable is thus marked with 
a horizontal line ["] ; as, amare ; or with a circum- 
flex accent thus, [ A ]; as, amaris. A short sylla- 
ble is marked thus, with a curved line, ["] ; as, 
omnibus. 

What pertains to the quantity of syllables, to accent, and 
verse, will be treated of afterwards. 

WORDS. 

Words are articulate sounds, significant of thought. 

That part of Grammar which treats of words, is called 
Etymology, or Analogy. 

All words may be divided into three kinds ; namely, 1. such as mark tire 
names of things ; 2. such as denote what is affirmed concerning things; and 
3. such as are significant only in conjunction with other words; or what are 
called Substantives, Attributives, and Connectives. Thus in the following sen- 
tence, "The diligent boy reads the lesson carefully in the school, and at home," 
the words boy, lesson, school, home, are the names we give to the things spoken 
of; diligent, reads, carefully, express what is affirmed concerning the boy ; the f 
in, and, at, are only significant when joined with the other words of the 
sentence. 

All words whatever are either simple or compound, primi- 
tive or derivative. 

The division of words into simple and compound, is called 
their Figure ; into primitive and derivative, their Species or 
kind. 

A simple word is that which is not made up of more than 
one ; as, pius, pious ; ego, I ; doceo, I teach. 

A compound word is that which is made up of two or more 
words ; or of one word and some syllable added ; as, i?npius, 
impious ; dedoceo, I unteach ; egomet, I myself. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 13 

A primitive word is that which comes from no other ; as, 
plus, pious ; disco, I learn ; doceo, I teach. 

A derivative word is that which comes from another word ; 
as pietas, piety ; doctrina, learning. 

The different classes into which we divide words, are called 
Parts of Speech. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

The parts of speech in Latin are eight ; 1. Noun, 
Pronoun, Verb, Participle; declined: 2. Adverb, 
Preposition, Interjection, and Conjunction ; unde- 
clined. 

In English the adjective and participle are not declined. 

Those words or parts of speech are said to be declined, 
which receive different changes, particularly on the end, which 
is called the Termination of words. 

The changes made upon words are by grammarians called 
Accidents* 

Of old, all words which admit of different terminations 
were said to be declined. But Declension is now applied 
only to nouns. The changes made upon the verb are called 
Conjugation. 

The English language has one part of speech more than 
the Latin, namely, the ARTICLE. 

The article is a word put before substantive nouns, to point 
them out, and to show how far their signification extends. 

There are two articles, a and the : a becomes an before a 
vowel, or a silent h. 

A is called the Indefinite, The the Definite Article. 

A is used to point out one single thing of a kind, without 
fixing precisely what the thing 'is: The determines what par- 
ticular thing is meant. 

A man means simply some one or other of that kind : the 
man signifies that particular man who is spoken of. 

The want of the article is a defect in the Latin tongue, 
and often renders the meaning of nouns undetermined ; thus, 
filius regis, may signify, either a son of a king, or a king** 
son ; or the son of the king, or the king's son. 

The, placed before certain common names, marks either a 
whole kind, or some individual of that kind, with which we 
are acquainted ; as, the lion, the ox, &c. 

A can only be joined to substantive nouns in the singular 
number : the may also be joined to plurals. A is likewise 
used before adjectives which express number, when many are 

B 






14 NOUN SUBSTANTIVE. 

considered as one whole ; as, a thousand men, a few, a great 
many men. 

The is likewise applied to adjectives and adverbs in the 
comparative or superlative degree, to mark their sense more 
strongly ; as, " the wiser ;" " the better ;" " the more I think 
of it, the better I like it." 

NOUN. 

A noun is either substantive or adjective. 

The adjective seems to be improperly called noun ; it is only a word added 
to a substantive or noun, expressive of its quality ; and therefore should be con- 
sidered as a different part of speech. But as the substantive and adjective 
together express but one object, and in Latin are declined after the same man- 
ner, they have both been comprehended under the same general name. 

SUBSTANTIVE. 

A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any 
person, place, or thing ; as boy, school, book. 

Substantives ate of two sorts ; proper and common names. 

Proper names are the names appropriated to individuals ; 
as the names of persons and places ; such as Ccesar, Rome. 

Common names stand for whole kinds, containing several 
sorts ; or for sorts, containing many individuals under them ; 
as, animal, man, beast, fish, fowl, &c. 

Every particular being should have its own proper name, 
but this is impossible, on account of their innumerable mul- 
titude ; men have therefore been obliged to give the same 
common name to such things as agree together in certain 
respects. These form what is called a genus, or kind ; a spe- 
cies, or sort. 

A proper name may be used for a common, and then in 
English it has the article joined to it; as, when we say of some 
great conqueror, "He is em Alexander;" or, "The Alexander 
of his age." 

To proper and common names may be added a third class 
of nouns, which mark the names of qualities, and are called 
abstract nouns; as, hardness, goodness, whiteness, virtue, jus- 
tice, piety, &c. 

When we speak of things, we consider them as one or 
more. That is what we call Number. When one thing is 
spoken of, a noun is said to be of the singular number; when 
two or more, of the plural. 

Things considered according to their kinds, are either male 
or female, or neither of the two. Males are said to be of the 
masculine gender; females of the feminine; and all other 
things of the neuter gender. 

Such nouns as are applied to signify either the male or the 



ENGLISH NOUNS. 15 

female, are saia 1 to be of the common gender ; that is, either 
masculine or feminine. 

Various methods are used, in different languages, to express 
the different connexions or relations of one thing to another. 
In the English, and in most modern languages, this is done 
by prepositions, or particles placed before the substantive ; in 
Latin, by declension, or by different cases ; that is, by chang- 
ing the termination of the noun ; as rex, a king, or the king ; 
regis, of a king, or of the king. 

ENGLISH NOUNS. 

In English, nouns have only one case, namely, the genitive, 
or possessive case, which is formed from the noun, by adding 
an s, with an apostrophe, or mark to separate it ; as, John's 
book, the same with the book of John. It was formerly writ- 
ten Johnis book* 

Some have thought the 's a contraction for his ; but improperly; because, 
instead of the woman's book, we cannot say, the woman his book. Others hpve 
imagined, and with more justness, that by the addition of the 's the substantive 
is changed into a possessive adjective. 

When the noun ends in s, the sign of the possessive case is sometimes not 
added ; as, for righteousness sake ; and never to the plural number ending in s; 
as, on eagles wings. Perhaps it would be better in the plural when it ends in s, 
always to use the particle, and not the possessive form; as, on the vying s of 
eagles. Both the sign and the preposition seem sometimes to be used ; as, a sol- 
dier of the king's: but here are two possessives; for it means, one of the soldiers 
of the king. 

A singular noun, in English, is made plural by adding to 
it s, or, for the sake of sound, es; as, king, kings; church, 
churches; brush, brushes; witness, witnesses ; fox, foxes ; leaf, 
leaves ; in which last and in many others, f is also turned 
into v, to make the pronunciation easier. 

Several plurals are formed by adding en; as, ox, oxen. Of 
these some are contracted, or interpose a letter on account of 
sound ; as, brethren, children, kine, swine, women, men, &c. 
for brotheren, sowen, &c. Instead of kine, we now com- 
monly say cows ; and we seldom use brethren, but in solemn 
discourse. 

Nouns in y change y into ie; as, cherry, cherries; city, 
cities. Cherry's, city's, &c. are in the possessive case. 

Some nouns form the plural more irregularly: as, mouse, 
mice; louse, lice; tooth, teeth ; foot, feet ; goose, geese, &c. 

The words sheep, deer, are the same in both numbers. 
Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they express, 
are used only in the singular, or in the plural form ; as, wheat, 
pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c. and bellows, scissors, lungs, 
bowels, &c. 

Several nouns in English are changed in their termination, 



■ 

16 LATIN NOUNS AND GENERAL RULES OF DECLENSION. 

to express gender ; as, prince, princess ; actor, actress ; lion, 
lioness ; hero, heroine ; duke, duchess. 

The English language has a peculiar advantage over most 
other languages, in making all words whatever, except the 
names of males and females, to be of the neuter gender ; un- 
less when inanimate beings are personified, or considered as 
persons ; as, when we say of the sun, he shines; or of the moon, 
she shines. 

LATIN NOUNS. 

A Latin noun is declined by Genders, Cases, 
and Numbers. 

There are three genders, Masculine, Feminine, 
and Neuter. 

The cases are six, Nominative, Genitive, Dative, 
Accusative, Vocative, and Ablative. 

There are two numbers, Singular and Plural. 

There are five different ways of varying or de- 
clining nouns, called theirs/, second, third, fourth, 
and fifth declensions. 

Cases are certain changes made upon the termination of 
nouns, to express the relation of one thing to another. 

They are so called, from cddo, to fall ; because they fall, 
as it were, from the nominative ; which is therefore named 
casus rectus, the straight case ; and the other cases, casus 
ohliqui, the oblique cases. 

The different declensions may be distinguished 
from one another by the termination of the genitive 
singular. The first declension has ce diphthong ; 
the second has i ; the third has is ; the fourth has 
{is; and the fifth has ei in the genitive. 

Although Latin nouns be said to have six cases, yet none 
of them have that number of different terminations, both in 
the singular and plural. 

General Rules of Declension. 

1. Nouns of the neuter gender have the Accusa- 
tive and Vocative like the Nominative, in both 
numbers ; and these cases in the plural end always 
in a. 



GENDEE OF NOUNS. 17 

2. The Dative and Ablative plural end always 
alike. 

3. The Vocative for the most part in the singu- 
lar, and always in the plural, is the same with the 
Nominative. 

Greek nouns in s generally lose s in the Vocative ; as, 
Thomas, Thoma; Paris, Pari; Panthus, Panthu ; Pallas, 
-antis, Palla ; names of men. But nouns in es of the third 
declension oftener retain the s ; as, 6 Achilles, rarely -e; O 
Socrates, seldom -e : and sometimes nouns in is and as ; as, 
O Thais, Mysis, Pallas, -adis, the goddess Minerva, &c. 

4. Proper names for the most part want the 
plural : 

Unless several of the same name may be spoken of; as, 
duodecim Ccesares, the twelve Caesars. 

The cases of Latin nouns are thus expressed in English ; 

1. With the indefinite article, a king. 
Singular. Plural. 

Nom. a king, Nom. kings, 

Gen. of a king, Gen. of kings, 

Dat. to or for a king, Dat. to or for kings, 

Ace. a king, Ace. kings, 

Voc. O king, Voc. O kings, 

Abl. with, from, in, by, a king: Abl. with, from, in, by, kings, 

2. With the definite article, the king. 
Singular. Plural. 

Nom. the king, Nom. the kings, 

Gen. of the king, Gen. of the kings, 

Dat. to or for the king, Dat. to or for the kings, 

Ace. the king, Ace. the kings, 

Voc. O king, Voc. O kings, 

Abl. with,from, in,by, the king: Abl. tvith,from,in,by,the kings. 

GENDER. 

Nouns in Latin are said to be of different genders, not 
merely from the distinction of sex, but chiefly from their be- 
ing joined with an adjective of one termination, and not of 
another. Thus, penna, a pen, is said to be feminine, because 
it is always joined with an adjective in that termination which 
is applied to females ; as, bona penna, a good pen, and not 
bonus penna. 

The gender of nouns which signify things without life, 
depends on their termination, and different declension. 
b2 



18 GENDER OF NOUNS. 

To distinguish the different genders, grammarians make 
use of the pronoun hie, to mark the masculine ; h<zc r the 
feminine ; and hoc, the neuter. 

General Rules concerning Gender. 

1. Names of males are masculine; as, 
Homerus, Homer ; pater, a father ; poeta, a poet. 

2. Names of females are feminine ; as, 

Helena, Helen ; mulier, a woman ; uxor, a wife ; mater, a 
mother ; soror^ a sister ; Tellus, the goddess of the earth. 

3. Nouns which signify either the male or female, 
are of the common gender ; that is, either mascu- 
line or feminine; as, 

Hie bos, an ox ; haec bos, a cow ; hie parens, a father ; haec 
parens, a mother. 

The following list comprehends most nouns of the common 
gender. 

Adolescens, ) a young man, Convlva, a guest. Obses, an hostage. 

Juvenis, } or woman. Custos, a keeper. Patruelis, a eousin-german, 

Affinis, a relation by mar- Dux, a leader. by the father's side. 

riage. Hares, an heir. Prses, a surety. 

Antistes, a prelate. Hostis, an enemy. Princeps, a prince or prhi' 

Auctor, an author. Infans, an infant. cess. 

Augur, a soothsayer. Interpres, an interpreter. Sacerdos, a priest or priest- 

Canis, a dog or bitch. Judex, a judge. ess. 

CIvis, a citizen. Martyr, a martyr. Sus, a swine. 

Cliens, a client. Miles, a soldier. Testis, a witness. 

Comes, a companion. Municeps, a burgess. Vates, a prophet. 

Conjux, a husband or wife. Nemo, no body. Vindex, an avenger* 

But antistes, cliens, and hospes, also change their termina- 
tion to express the feminine ; thus, antistita, clienta, hospita : 
in the same manner with leo, a lion ; leama, a lioness ; equus, 
equa ; mulus, mula ; and many others. 

There are several nouns, which, though applicable to both 
sexes, admit only of a masculine adjective; as, advena, a 
stranger ; agricola, a husbandman ; assecla, an attendant ; 
accola, a neighbor ; exul, an exile ; latro, a robber ; fur, a 
thief; opifex, a mechanic, &c. There are others, which, 
though applied to persons, are, on account of their termination, 
always neuter ; as, scortum, a courtesan ; mancipium, servitu 
um, a slave, &c. 

In like manner, opera, slaves or day-laborers; mgilia, 
excubicB, watches ; noxce r guilty persons ; though applied to 
men, are always feminine. 

* Conjux, atque parens, infans, patruelis, et hares, 
Jlffinis, vindex, judex, dux, miles, et hostis, 
Augur, et antistes, juvenis, conviv a, sacerdos, 
Muniqueceps, vates, adolescens, civis, el auctor, 
Custos, nemo; comes, testis, sus, bosque, canisque, 
Interpresque, cliens, princeps, pras, martyr, et obses. 



GENDER OF NOUNS. 19 

4. All nouns undeclined (except names of men and women) 
are neuter; as, gummi, gum; git, a small seed: so are all 
names of letters ; as, Alpha, A salutare ; Mud B, that B : also 
all words or phrases used as nouns (though not so) ; as, ulti* 
mum vale, the last farewell ; scire tuum nihil est, your know- 
ledge is nothing ; videre est jucundum, to see is pleasant ; hoc 
diu odi, I hate that word diu. 

Observations. 

Obs. 1. The names of brute animals commonly follow the 
gender of their termination. 

Such are the names of wild beasts, birds, fishes, and in- 
sects, in which the distinction of sex is either not easily dis- 
cerned, or seldom attended to. Thus \ passer, a sparrow, is 
masculine, because nouns in er are masculine ; so aquila, an 
eagle, is feminine, because nouns in <$,of the first declension 
are feminine. These are called Epicene, or promiscuous 
nouns. When any particular sex is marked, we usually add 
the word mas or femina ; as, mas passer, a male sparrow ; 
femina passer, a female sparrow. 

Obs. 2. A proper name, for the most part, follows the gen- 
der of the general name under which it is comprehended. 

Thus, the names of months, winds, rivers, and 
mountains, are masculine ; because mensis, ventus, 
mons, and fluvius, are masculine; as, 

Hie Aprilis, April ; hie aquilo, the north wind ; hie Africus, 
the south-west wind ; hie Tiberis, the river Tiber ; hie Othrys, 
a hill in Thessaly. But many of these follow the gender of 
their termination ; as, haec Matrona, the river Marne in 
France ; haec JEtna, a mountain in Sicily ; hoc Soracte, a hill 
in Italy. 

In like manner, the names of countries, towns, 
trees, and ships, are feminine, because terra or re- 
gio, urbs, arbor, and ndvis, are feminine ; as, 
Haec Egyptus, Egypt ; Samos, an island of that name ; Co- 
rinthus, the city Corinth ; pbmus, an apple-tree ; Centaurus, 
the name of a ship : Thus also the names of poems, haec Ilias, 
-ados, and Odyssea, the two poems of Homer ; hsec JEneis, 
•idos, a poem of Virgil's ; haec Eunuchus, one of Terence's 
comedie's. 

The gender, however, of many of these depends on the 
termination ; thus, hie Pontus, a country of that name ; hie 
Sulmo, -onis; Pessinus, -untis; Hydrus, -untis, names of towns ; 
haec Persis, -idis, the kingdom of Persia ; Carthago, 4nis, the 



20 FIRST DECLENSION. 

city of Carthage ; hoc Albion, Britain ; hoc Care, Recite, Pre* 
neste, Tibur, Ilium, names of towns. But some of these are 
also found in the feminine ; as Gelida Prceneste, Juvenal, iii. 
190, Alta Ilion, Ovid. Met. xiv. 466. 

The following names of trees are masculine, oleaster, -tri, 
a wild olive-tree ; rhamnus, the white bramble. 

The following are masculine or feminine ; cytisus, a kind 
of shrub; rubus, the bramble -bush ; larix, the larch-tree; lotus, 
the lot-tree ; cupressus, the cyprus-tree. The first two, how- 
ever, are oftener masculine ; the rest oftener feminine. 

Those in urn are neuter; as, buxum, the bush, or box-tree; 
ligustrum, a privet ; so likewise are suber, -eris, the cork-tree ; 
siler, -eris, the osier ; rbbur, -oris, oak of the hardest kind ; 
deer, -eris, the maple-free. 

The place where trees or shrubs grow is commonly neuter ; 
as, Arbustum, quercetvm, esculetum, sdlictum, fruticetum, &c. 
a place where trees, oafc, beeches, willows, shrubs, &c. grow : 
also the names of fruits and timber ; as, pomum, or malum, an 
apple : pirum, a pear : ebenum, ebony, &c. But from this rule 
there are various exceptions. 

Obs. 3. Several nouns are said to be of the 
doubtful gender ; that is, are sometimes found in 
one gender, and sometimes in another ; as, dies, a 
day, masculine or feminine; vulgus, the rabble, 
masculine or neuter. 

FIRST DECLENSION. 

Nouns of the first declension end in a, e, as, es. 

Latin nouns end only in a, and are of the femi- 
nine gender. 

The terminations of the different cases are : Nom. and Voc. 
Sing, a ; Gen. and Dat. <b diphthong ; Ace. am ; Abl. a ; Nom. 
and Voc. Plur. <b ; Gen. arum ; Dat. and Abl. is ; Ace. as : 
thus, 

Penna, a pen, fern. 

Singular. Plural. Terminations. 

N. penna,* a pen; N. pennae, pens; a, ce. 

G. pennae, of a pen ; G. pennarum, of pens ; a, arum, 

D. pennas, to a pen ; D. pennis, to pens ; ce, is, 

A. pennam, a pen; A. pennas, pens; am, as, 

V. penna, O pen; V. pennae, O pens ; a, <e, 

A. penna, with a pen ; A. pennis, with pens., a, is. 

* If the first or middle syllable in the Nominative of a Latin noun or adjective be 
long or short, that syllable generally continues so through all cases and numbers. 



FIRST DECLENSION. 21 

In like manner decline, 

Acerra, a censor. Genista, broom. Orca, a jar. 

Amita, an aunt, the father's Habena, a rein. Psenula, a riding-coat. 

sister. Haruga, a sacrifice. Palpebra, the eyelid. 

Balaena, a whale. Jactura, loss. Quadra, Sc -um, a square. 

Bibliopola, a bookseller. Idiota, m. an illiterate per- Rana, a frog: 

Caliga, a kind of shoe set son. Ruga, a wrinkle. 

with nails. Illecebra, an allurement. Saga, a sorceress. 

Campana, a bell. Juba, the mane. Salebra, a ragged way. 

Decempeda, a pole of ten Lacinia, a fringe. Taberna, a shop. 

feet. Lanista, m. a fencing-mas- Tessera, a dye. 

Dolabra, an ax. ter. Uulla, an owl. 

Epistola, a letter. Mactra, a kneading-trough. Ungiila, a nail, the hoof. 

Esca, a bait. Marra, a mattock. Vacca, a cow. 

Faba, a bean. Nassa, a net. Verruca, a wart. 

Fistuca, a rammer. Noenia, a funeral song. Zona, a girdle, a zone, &c. 

Galea, a helmet. Occa, a harrow. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Exc. 1. The following nouns are masculine : Hadria, the 
Hadriatic sea ; cometa, a comet ; planeta, a planet ; and some- 
times talpa, a mole ; and dama, a fallow-deer. Pascha, the 
passover, is neuter. 

Exc. 2. The ancient Latins sometimes formed the genitive 
singular in ai ; thus, aula, a hall, gen. aulai ; and sometimes 
likewise in as ; which form, the compounds of familia usually 
retain ; as, mater-familias, the mistress of a family : thus, 

Norn, mater-familias, the mistress of a family. 

Gen, matris-familias, of the mistress of a family. 

Dot. matri-familias, to the mistress of a family. 

Ace. matrem-familias, a mistress of a family. 

Voc. mater-familias, O mistress of a family. 

Abl. matre-familias, with the mistress of a family. 
Nom. plural, matres-familias, or matresfamiliarum, &c. ; it 
being also found declined after the other manner ; as, Singulis, 
patribus familiarum. Cic. Quidam pater familia. Liv. 

Exc. 3. The following nouns have more frequently abus in 
the dative and ablative plural, to distinguish them in these 
cases from masculines in us of the second declension : 

Anima, the soul, the life. FUia, & Nata, a daughter. 

Dea, a goddess. Liberta, a freed-woman. 

Equa, a mare. Mula, a she-mule. 
Famiila, a female servant. 

Thus, deabus, fliabus, rather than fliis, &c. 

GREEK NOUNS. 

Nouns in as, es, and e of the first declension, are Greek. 
Nouns in as and es are masculine : nouns in e are feminine. 

Nouns in as are declined like penna ; only they have am 
or an in the accusative ; as, Mneas : ^Eneas, the name of a 
man : thus, 

Nom. iEneas, JEneas. Ace. ^Eneam, vel -an, JEneas. 

Gen. JEneae, of JEneas. Voc. ^Enea, O JEneas. 

Dat. iEneae, to JEneas. AM. iEnea, tvith JEneas. 



22 SECOND DECLENSION. 

So Boreas, -ece, the north wind ; Tiaras, -<r, a turban. In 
prose they have commonly am, but in poetry oftener an, in the 
accusative. Greek nouns in a have sometimes also an in the 
ace. in poetry : as Ossa, -am or -an, the name of a mountain. 

Nouns in es and e are thus declined : 

Anchises, Anchises, the name of a man. 
Singular* 

Norn. Anchises, Anchises. 

Gen. Anchisse, of Anchises. 

Dat. Anchisae, to Anchises. 

Ace. Anchisen, Anchises. 

Toe. Anchise, vel -a, O Anchises. 

AM. Anchise, vel -a, with Anchises. 

Penelope, Penelope, the name of a woman. 

Singular. 

Norn. Penelope, Penelope. 

Gen. Penelopes, of Penelope. 

Dat. Penelope, to Penelope. 

Ace. Penelopem, vel Penelopen, Penelope. 

Voc. Penelope, O Penelope. 

AM. Penelope, with Penelope. 

Greek nouns of the first declension in as and es, drop s in 

the Vocative ; as, Tiaras, voc. Tiara. 

These nouns, being proper names, want the plural, unless 
when several of the same name are spoken of, and then they 
are declined like the plural of penna. 

The Latins frequently turn Greek nouns in es and e into a; 
as, Atrida, for Atrldes ; Persa for Perses, a Persian ; Geo- 
metra, for 4res, a Geometrician ; Circa for Circe ; Epitoma, 
for -me, an abridgment ; Grammatica, for ~ce, grammar ; Rhe- 
torica, for -ce, oratory. So Clinia, for Clinias, &c. The ac- 
cusative of nouns in es and e is found sometimes in em. 

Note. We sometimes find the genit. plural contracted ; as, Ccelicolum, for Coeli» 
colarum, JEneadumj for -arum. 

SECOND DECLENSION. 

Nouns of the second declension end in er, ir, us, 
um ; 05, on. 

Nouns in um and on are neuter ; the rest are 
masculine. 

Nouns of the second declension have the gen. sing, in i ; 
the dat. and abl. in o ; the ace. in um; the voc. like the nom. 
(But nouns in us make the vocative in e :) The nom. and voc. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



23 



plur. in i or a ; the gen. in orum ; the dat. and abl. in is ; 
and the ace. in os, or a ; as, 

Gener, a son-in-law, masc. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 
A. 



gener, 

generi, 

genero, 

generum 

gener. 



Sing. 

a son-in-law. 
of a son-in-law. 
to a son-in-law. 
a son-in-law. 
O son-in-law. 



genero, with a son-in-law. 



Plur. 

N. generi, sons-in-law. 

G. generorum, of sons-in-law. 
D. generis, to sons-in-law. 
A. generos, sons-in-law. 

V. generi, O sons-in-law. 

A. generis, with sons-in-law. 



After the same manner decline socer, -eri, a father-in-law ; 
puer, -eri, a boy : So Furcifer, a villain ; Lucifer, the morn- 
ing star; adulter, an adulterer; armiger, an armor-bearer; 
presbyter, an elder ; Mulciber, a name of the god Vulcan ; 
vesper, the evening ; and Iber, -eri, a Spaniard, the only noun 
in er which has the gen. long, and its compound Celtiber, -eri : 
Also, vir, viri, a man, the only noun in ir ; and its compounds 
Levir, a brother-in-law ; Semivir, duumvir, triumvir, &c. And 
likewise Sdtur, -uri, full, (of old, satiirus,) an adjective* 

But most nouns in er los* the e in the genitive ; as, 
Ager, a field, masc. 



Sing. 


* Plur. 


Nom. ager, a field. 


Nom. agri, fields, 


Gen. agri, of a field. 


Gen. agrorum, of fields* 


Dat. agro, to a field. 


Dat. agris, to fields* 


Ace. agrum, a field. 


Ace. agros, fields* 


Voc. ager, O field. 


Voc. agri, O fields* 


Abl. agro, with a field. 


Abl. agris, with fields* 



In like manner decline, 

Aper, a tcitd boar. Coluber, & -bra, a serpent. Magister, a master. 

Arbiter, (& -tra) a judge. Culter, the coulter of a Minister, a servant. 

Auster, the south wind. ^ plow, a knife. Onager, a wild ass. 

Cancer, a crab fish. Faber, a workman. Scalper, a lancet. 
Caper, a he goat. 

Also liber, the bark of a tree, or a book, which has libri ; 
but liber, free, an adjective, and Liber, a name of Bacchus, 
the god of wine, have liberi. So likewise proper names, 
Alexander, Evander, Periander, Menander, Teucer, Meleager, 
&c. gen. Alexandri, Evandri, &c. 

* Dominus, a lord, masc. 

Plur. 



Sing. 
Nom. dominus, 
Gen. domkii, 
Dat. domino, 
Ace. 'dominum, 
Voc. domine, 



a lord, 
of a lord, 
to a lorpl. 

a lord. 

O lord. 



Abl. domino, with a lord. 



Nom. domini, lords* 

Gen. dominorum, of lords* 
Dat. dominis, to lords. 
Ace. dominos, lords. 

Voc. domini, O lords. 

Abl. dominis, with lords. 



24 



SECOND DECLENSION. 



Abacus, a table or desk. 
Argentarius, a banker. 
Bajulus, a porter. 
Barrus, an elephant. 
Caduceus, a wand. 
Carpus, the wrist. 
Caurus, a west wind. 
Discus, a quoit. 
Dumus, a bzish. 
Ephebus, a youth. 



In like manner decline, 

Grabatus, a couch. Patruus, the father's brother. 



Hariulus, a diviner. 
Hinnus, a mule. 
Juncus, a bulrush. 
Lanius, a butcher. 
Lituus, a crooked staff. 
Malus, the mast of a ship. 
Mediastlnus, a slave, c 

drudge. 
Nanus, a dwarf. 



Equuleus, an instrument of Nodus, a knot. 

torture. Obolus, a farthing. 

Favus, a honeycomb. Orcus, hell. 

Fiscus, the exchequer. Pagus, a canton or village. 

Gibbus, a swelling. 



Qualus & quasillus, a basket. 
Remus, an oar. 
Rhoncus, a snorting. 
Sarcophagus, a stone in which 
dead bodies were inclosed, 
Sciurus, a squirrel. 
Talus, the ankle, a die. 
Taxus, f. the yew-tree. 
Uncus, a hook. 
Urus, a buffalo. 
Villus, shaggy hair. 
Vitricus, a step-father. 
Zephyrus, the west-wind, &c 



Sing. 
Norn, regnum, a kingdom. 



Regnum, a kingdom, neut. 



Gen. regni, 
Dat. regno, 
Ace. regnum, 
Toe. regnum, 



of a kingdom, 
to a kingdom. 

a kingdom. 

O kingdom. 



Plur. 

Nom. regna, kingdoms. 

Gen. regnorum, of kingdoms. 
Dat. regnis, to kingdoms. 



AM. regno, with a kingdom. 



Ace. regna, 
Voc. regna, 
Abl. regnis, 



kingdoms. 
O kingdoms, 
with kingdoms. 



In like manner decline, 



Aconitum, wolfs bane, a 
poisonous plant. • 

Allium, garlic. 

Barathrum,, an abyss. 

Capistrum, a halter or 
muzzle. 

Cilium, the eye-lashes. 

Delubrum, a temple. 



GynEBceum, the woman's 
apartment. 

Helleborum, & -us, helle- 
bore, a plant. 

Hdrologium, any thing that 
tells the hours. 

Idjilium, a pastoral poem. 

Indusium, a shirt 



Nasturtium, cresses. 
Naufragium, shipwreck. 
Omasum, the paunch. 
Qpsonium, fish, or any thing 

eaten with bread. 
Pactum, an agreement. 
Paludamentum, a generaVs 
robe. 



Dlluculum, the dawning of Jugum, a yoke, the ridge of Rastrum, a rake. 



day. 

Electrum, amber. 
Emolumentum, profit. 
Ferculum, a dish of meat. 
Flabellum, a fan. 
Graphium, a pencil. 



a hill. 
Justitium, a vacation. 
Lardum, bacon. 
Lustrum, a survey. 
Macellum, the shambles. 
Mustum, new wine. 



Repudium, a divorce. 
Sabulum, gravel. 
Sagum, a soldier's cloak. 
Tabulatum, a story. 
Tintinnabulum, a little bell 
Vaccinium, a berry. 
Vestlbulum, a porch, &c 



Exceptions in Gender. 
Exc. 1. The following nouns in us are feminine ; humus r 
the ground ; alvus, the belly ; vannus, a sieve. 

And the following derived from Greek nouns in 05 ; 



Abyssus, a bottomless pit. 
Antidotus f a preservative 

against poison. 
Arctos, the Bear, a constel- 
lation near the north pole. 
Carbasus, a sail. 



Dialectus, a dialect orman- Methodus, a method. 

ner of speech. Periodus, a period. 

Diainetros, the diameter of Perimetros, the circumfer- 

a circle. ence. 

Diphthongus, a diphthong. Pharus, a watch-tower. 

Eremus, a desert. Synodus, an assembly. 



To these add some names of jewels and plants, because 
gemma and planta are feminine ; as, 



Amethystus, an amethyst. Sapphlrus, a sapphire. 

Chrysolithus, a chrysolite. Topazius, a topaz. 

Chrysophrasus, a kind of n; K i„ 1 an Egyptian reed, 

topaz. pS?rM r * which P a P er 

Chrystallus, crystal. rapyrus,j was ma( i e , 

Leucochrysus, a jacinth. 



Byssus, fine flax or linen. 
Costus, costmary. 
Crocus, saffron. 
Hyssopus, hyssop. 
Nardus, spikenard. 



SECOND DECLENSION. 25 

Other names of jewels are generally masculine ; as, Beryl- 
Ius, the beryl ; Carbunculus, a carbuncle ; Pyropus, a ruby ; 
Smdragdus, an emerald : And also names of plants ; as, As- 
paragus, asparagus, or sparrowgrass ; elleborus, hellebore ; 
raphanus, radish or colewort ; intybus, endive or succory, &c. 

Exc. 2. The nouns which follow are either masculine or 
feminine : 

Atumus, an atom. Barbitus, a harp. Grossus, a green fig. 

Balanus, the fruit of the Camclus, a camel. Penus, a store-house, 

palm-tree, ointment. Colus, a distaff. Phaselus, a little ship. 

Exc. 3. Virus, poison ; pelagus, the sea, are neuter. 
Exc. 4. Vulgus, the common people, is either masculine 
or neuter, but oftener neuter. 

Exceptions in Declension. 

Proper names in ius lose us in the vocative ; as, 

Hordtius, Hordti ; Virgilius, Virgili ; Georgius, Georgi, 
names of men ; Ldrius, Ldri ; Mincius, Mind, names of lakes. 
Filius, a son, also hath Jill ; genius, one's guardian angel, 
geni ; and deus, a god, hath deus, in the voc. and in the plural 
more frequently dii and diis, than dei and d'eis ; as, 
Singular. Plural. 

N. Dii or Dei fy Di, Gods, 
G. Deorum, of Gods, 

D. Diis or Deis or Dis, to Gods, 
A. Decs, Gods, 

V. Dii, O Gods, 

A. Diis or Deis or Dls,withGods. 
Meus, my, an adjective pronoun, hath mi, and sometimes 
meus, in the vocative ; as, mi Deus ! O my God ! 

Other nouns in ius have e ; as, tabellarius, tabellarie, a letter-carrier ; pius, 
pie, &c. So these epithets, DUius, Delie; Tirynthius, Tirynthie; and these 
possessives, Laertius, Laertie; Saturnius, Saturnie, &c. which are not con- 
sidered as proper names. 

The poets sometimes make the vocative of nouns in us like the nominative r 
as, Fluvius, Latinus, for Fluvie, Latine, Virg. This also occurs in prose, but 
more rarely; thus, Auditu, populus, for popule, Liv. i. 24. 

The poets also change nouns in er into us; as, Evander, or Evandrus, vocative, 
Evander, or Evandre. So Meander, Leander, Tymber, Teucer, &c. ; and so an- 
ciently puer in the vocative had^mere, from^w£rws. 

Note. When the genitive singular ends in ii, the latter i is sometimes taken 
away by the poets for the sake of quantity ; as, tuguri, for tugurii ; ingeni, for 
ingenii, &c. And in the genitive plural we find deum, liberum, fabrum, duicm- 
virum, &c. for deorum, liberorum, &c. and in poetry, Teucrum, Graium, Argl- 
vum, Ddnaum, Pelasgum, &c. for Teucrorum, &c. 

GREEK NOUNS. 

Os and on are Greek terminations ; as, Alpheos, a river in 
Greece ; llion, the city Troy ; and are often changed into us 
and um, by the Latins ; Alpheus, Ilium, which are declined 
like dominus and regnum. 

C 



N. Deus, 


a God, 


G. Dei, 


of a God, 


D. Deo, 


to a God, 


A. Deum, 


a God, 


V. Deus, 


O God, 


A. Deo, 


toith a God: 



26 THIRD DECLENSION. 

Nouns in eos or eus are sometimes contracted in the genitive ; as, Orpheus, 
genitive Orphei, Orphei, or Orphi. So Theseus, Prometheus, &c. But nouns in 
eus, when eu is a diphthong, are mostly of the third declension: so that Orpheus, 
Orphe-i, OrpM-a, Orphe-um, Orphe-on, and OrpM-e, are seldom found. 

Some nouns in os have the genitive singular in o ; as, Androgeos, genitive 
Androgeo, or ei, the name of a man ; Athos, Atho or i, a hill in Macedonia; and 
are thus declined : 

Singular, Singular. 

Nom. Androgeos, Nom. Athos, 

Gen. Androgei, or Androgeo, Gen. Atho, or Attn, 

Bat. Androgeo, Dot. Atho, 

Ace. v Androge5n, or Androgeo, Ace. A thon, or Atho, 

Voc. Androgeos, Voc. Athos, 

Abl. Androgeo, Abl. Atho. 

But both of these nouns are also found in the third declension: thus, nomina- 
tive Androgeo, genitive Androgeonis. So Atho, or Athon, -onis, &c. Anciently 
nouns in os, in imitation of the Greeks, had the genitive in u; as, Menandru, 
Apollodbru, for Menandri Apollodori, Ter. 

Nouns in os have the accusative in um or on; as, Delus or Delos, accusative 
Delum or Delon, the name of an island : thus, 
Singular. 
Nom. Delos, the island. Ace. Delum, or Delon, 

Gen. Deli, Delos, Voc. Dele, 

Dat. Delo, Abl Delo. 

Ilion, the city Troy, is thus declined : 

Singular. 

Nom. Ilion, Ace. Ilion, 

Gen. Ilii, Voc. Ilion, 

Dat. Ilio, Abl. Ilio. 

Some neuters have the genitive plural in on ; as, Georgtca, genitive plural 

Georgicdn; books which treat of husbandry, as Virgil's Georgicks. 

THIRD DECLENSION. 
There are more nouns of the third declension than of all 
the other declensions together. The number of its final syl- 
lables is not ascertained. Its final letters are thirteen, a, e, i, 
o, y, c, d, Z, n, r, s, t, x. Of these, eight are peculiar to this 
declension, namely, i, o, y, c, d, Z, t, x; a and e are common 
to it with the first declension ; n and r with the second ; and 
s, with all the other declensions. A, i, and y, are peculiar to 
Greek nouns. 

The terminations of the different cases are these; nom. 
sing, a, 6, &c; gen. is; dat. i ; ace. em; voc. the same with 
the nominative ; abl. e or i ; nom. ace. and voc. plur., es, a, 
or ia ; gen* um, or ium ; dat. and abl. ibus ; thus, 
Sermo, a speech, masc. 
Sing. Plur. 

N. sermo,* N. sermones, 



G. sermonis, 


G. sermonum, 


D. sermoni, 


D. sermonibus, 


A. sermonem, 


A. sermones, 


V. sermo, 


V. sermones, 


A* sermone, 


A. sermonibus. 



* To all nouns not Englished, let the pupil be taught to put the English by referring 
to penna. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 



Sing. 
rupes, 
rupis, 
rupi, 
rupem, 
rupes. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 

Rupes, a rock, fern. 



27 



Plur. 



A. rupe, 



a rock* 

of a rock. 

to a rock. 

a rock. 

O rock. 

with a rock. 



N. 
G. 
D. 
A. 
V. 
A. 



rupes, 

rupium, 

rupibus, 

rupes, 

rupes, 



rocks, 
of rocks, 
to rocks. 

rocks. 
O rocks. 



rupibus, with rocks. 



Lapis, a stone, masc. 
Sing. Plur. 

N. lapis, N. lapides, 

G. lapidis, G. lapidum, 

D. lapidi, D. lapidibus, 

A. lapidem, A. lapides, 

V. lapis, V. lapides, 

A. lapide. A. lapidibus. 

Caput, the head, neut. 



Sing. 

N. caput, a head. 

G. capitis, of a head. 



D. capiti, 
A. caput, 
V. caput, 



to a head, 
a head. 
O head. 



Plur. 
N. capita, 
G. capitum, 
D. capitibus, 
A. capita, 
V. capita, 



heads, 
of heads* 
to heads. 

heads. 
O heads. 



A. capite, with a head. A. capitibus, with heads. 



Sedile, a seat, neut. 
Sing. Plur. 

N. sedile, N. sedilia, 

G. sedilis, G. sedilium, 

D. sedili, D. sedilibus, 

A. sedile, A. sedilia, 

V. sedile, V. sedilia, 

A. sedili. A. sedilibus. 

Nemus, a grove, neut. 
Sing. Plur. 

N. nemus, N. nemora, 
G. nemoris, G. nemorum, 
D. nemori, D. nemoribiis, 
A. nemus, A. nemora, 
V. nemus, V. nemora, 
A. nemore, A. nemoribiis. 



Iter, a journey, neut. 



Sing. 
N. iter, 
G. itineris, 
D. itineri, 

iter, 

iter, 

itinere, 



A 
V. 
A. 



Fulgiir, a 
Sing. 
N. fulgiir, 
G. fulguris, 
D. fulgurl, 
A. fulgur, 
V. fulgur, 
A. fulgure. 



Plur. 
N. itinera, 
G. itinerum, 
D. itineribus, 
A. itinera, 
V. itinera, 
A. itineribus. 



neut. 
Plur. 
fulgura, 
fulgurum, 
fulguribus, 
fulgura, 
fulgura, 
fulguribus. . 



28 THIRD DECLENSION. 

Rex, a king, masc. Serpens, a serpent, masc. or fern. 
Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

N. Rex, N. Reges, N. serpens, N. serpentes, 

G. Regis, G. Regum, G. serpentis, G. serpentum,* 

D. Regi, D. Regibus, D. serpenti, D. serpentibus, 

A. Regem, A. Reges, A. serpentem, A. serpentes, 

V. Rex, V. Reges, V. serpens, V. serpentes, 

A. Rege. A. Regibus. A. serpente. A. serpentibus. 

Summary of the main following Rules for Gender. 

1. Nouns of the third declension that end in er, or, os, o, n, 
are masculine. 

2. Nouns ending in as, aus, es, is, ys, x, and s, with a con- 
sonant before it ; also nouns in do and go, and those in io, 
signifying a thing without a body, are feminine. 

3. Nouns ending in a, e, i, y, c, I, men, ar, ur, us, ut, are 
neuter. 

Of the GENDER and GENITIVE of Nouns of the Third 
Declension. 

A, E, I, and Y. 

1. Nouns in a, e, i, and y, are neuter. 

Nouns in a form the genitive in atis ; as, diadema, diade- 
mdtis, a crown ; dogma, -atis, an opinion. So, 

Apothegma, a short pithy Numisma, a coin. Stratagema, an artful eon- 

saying. Sophisma, a deceitful argu- trivance. 

Epigrauima, an inscription. ment. Toreuma, a carved vessel. 

Nouns in e change e into is ; as, rete, retis, a net. So, 

Ancile, a shield. Criniile, a pin for the hair. Secale, rye. 

Campestre, a pair of draw- Laqueare, a ceiled roof. Suile, a sow-cote, &c. 
ers. Mantile, a towel. 

Nouns in i are generally indeclinable ; as, gummi, gum ; 
zingiberi, ginger; but some Greek nouns add ztis ; as, 
hydromeli, hydromelitis, water and honey sodden together, 
mead. 

Nouns in y add os ; as, moly, molyos, an herb ; mysy, -yos, 
vitriol. 

O. 

2. Nouns in o are masculine, and form the geni- 
tive in onis ; as, 

Sermo, sermonis, speech ; draco, dracbnis, a dragon. So, 

Agaso, a horse-keeper. Capo, a capon. Leno, a pimp. 

Arrhabo, an earnest-penny \ Caupo, an inn-keeper. Lurco, a glutton. 

a pledge. Equlso, a groom or ostler. Mango, a slave merchant. 

Bambalio, a flatterer. Fullo, a fuller of cloth. M5rio, a fool. 

Bubo, an owl. Helluo, a glutton. Nebiilo, a knave. 

* Nouns in ns have also -tttwi in the genitive plural ; as, parentium or -wm, from 
parens, a parent. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 29 

Pavo, a peacock. Temo, the pole or draught- Umbo, the boss of a shield. 

Pusio, a little child. tree. Upilio, a shepherd. 

Sapo, soap. Tiro, a raw soldier. Volo, a volunteer, &c. 
Spado, a eunuch. 

Exc. 1. Nouns in io are feminine, when they signify any 
thing without a body ; as, ratio, rationis, reason. So, 

Captio, a quirk. N5tio, a notion or idea. Sectio, the confiscation or 

Concio, an assembly, a Optio, a choice. forfeiture of one's goods. 

speech. Perduellio, treason. Titillatio, a tickling, 
Dictio, a word. Potio, drink. Usucapio, the enjoyment of 
Deditio, a surrender. Q,uaestio, an inquiry. a thing by prescription. 
Legio, a legion, a body of Relatio, a telling. Vacatio, freedom from la- 
men. Remissio, a slackening. bor, &c. 
Mentio, mention. Sanctio, a confirmation. 

But when they mark any thing which has a body, or signify 
numbers, they are masculine ; as, 

Curculio, the throat-pipe, the Stellio, a lizard. Ternio, the number three. 

toeasand. Titio, a firebrand. GLuaternio, four. 

Papilio, a butterfly. Unio, a pearl. Senio, six, &c. 

Scorpio, a scorpion. Vespertillo, a bat. 

Exc. 2. Nouns in do and go are feminine, and have the 
genitive in mis ; as^ arundo, arundmis, a reed ; imago, ima- 
ginis, an image. So, 

jErugo, rust (of brass.) Intercapedo,a space between. Sartago, a frying-pan. 

Cartilago, a gristle. Lanugo, down. Torpedo, a numbness. 

Farrago, a mixture. Porrlgo, scurf or scales in Uligo, the natural moisture 
Grando, hail. the head; dandruff. of the earth. 

Hlrudo, a horse-leech. Rtibigo, rust, mildew. Vertigo, a dizziness, &c. 

But the following are masculine : 

Cardo, -inis, a hinge. Margo, -Inis, the brink of a river; also fern. 

Cudo, -5nls, a leather cap* Ordo, -Inis, order. 

Harpago, -onis, a drag. Tendo, -inis, a tendon. 

Ligo, onis, a spade. Udo, -onis, a linen or woollen sock. 

Ctipido, desire, is often masc. with the poets; but in prose always fern. 

Exc. 3. The following nouns have mis : 

Apollo, -inis, the god Apollo. Nemo, -inis, m. or f. nobody. 

Homo, -inis, a man or woman. Turbo, -inis, m. a whirlwind. 

Caro, flesh, fern, has carnis. Anio, masc. the name of a river, Anienis. Jferio, 
tferienis, the wife of the god Mars ; from the obsolete nominatives Anien, ATerien. 
Turbo, the name of a man, has onis. 

Exc. 4. Greek nouns in o are feminine, and have us in the 
genitive, and. o in the other cases singular; as, Dido, the 
name of a woman ; genit. Didiis ; dat. Dido, &c. Sometimes 
they are declined regularly ; thus, Dido, Didonis ; so echo, 
4ls, f. the resounding of the voice from a rock or wood ; 
Argo, -us, the name of a ship ; halo, -onis, f. a circle about 
the sun or moon. 

Argd,fem. 
Norn. Argo, Ace. Argo, 

Gen. Argus, Voc. Argo, 

Dat. Argo, Abl. Argo, 

Like Argo, decline, Sappho, Cceland, Echo, &c. 
c2 



30 THIRD DECLENSION. 

D'ido,fem. 
Latin form. Greek form. 

Sing. Sing. 

Norn. Dido, Norn. Dido, 

Gen. Didonis, Gen. Didus, 

Dot. Didoni, Dot. Dido, 

Ace. Didonem, Ace. Dido, 

Voc. Dido, Voc. Dido, 

Abl. Didone. AM. Dido, 

C,D,L. 

3. Nouns in c and / are neuter, and form the 
genitive by adding is ; as, 

Animal, animalis, a living creature ; toral, -alis, a bed-cover ; 
halec, halecis, a kind of pickle. So, 

Cervical, a bolster. Mmerval, entry -money* Puteal, a well-cover. 

Cubital, a cushion. Minutal, minced meat. Vectlgal, a tax. 

Except, Consul, -iilis, m. a consul. Mugil, -ilis, m. a mullet-Jish. 

Fel, fellis, n. gall. Sal, salis, m. or n. salt. 

Lac, lactis, n. milk. Sales, -ium, pi. m. witty sayings. 

Mel, mellis, n. honey. Sol, solis, m. the sun. 

D is the termination only of a few proper names, which 
form the genitive by adding is; as, David, Davidis. 

N. 

4. Nouns in n are masculine, and add is in the 
genitive; as, 

Daemon, -onis, a spirit. Physiognomon, -onis, one whoguesses at the 

Gnomon, -onis, the cock of a dial. dispositions of men from the face. 

Hymen, -enis, the god of marriage. Ren, renis, the reins. 

Lien, -enis, the milt. Sulen, -enis, the spleen, Sec. 

Exc 1. Nouns in men are neuter, and make their genitive 
in mis; %s,ftumen, fium&nis, a river. So, 

Acumen, sharpness. Foramen, a hole. Putamen, a nut-shell. 

Cacumen, the top. Germen, a sprout. Sagmen, vervain, an herb. 

Cognomen, a surname. Numen, the Deity. Tegmen, a covering. 

Discrlmen, a difference. Omen, a presage. Vlmen, a twig. 
Examen, a swarm of bees. 

The following nouns are likewise neuter : 

Gluten, -mis, glue. Inguen, -inis, the- groin. 

Unguen, -inis, ointment. Pollen, -mis, fine jiour. 

Exc 2. The following masculines have mis; pecten, a 
comb ; tubicen, a trumpeter ; tiblcen, a piper ; and oscen, v. 
oscinis, sc. avis, f., a bird which foreboded by singing. 

Exc. 3. The following nouns are feminine : Sindon, -onis, 
fine linen ; aedon, -onis, a nightingale ; halcyon, -onis, a bird 
called the king's fisher; icon, -onis, an image. 

Exc. 4. Some Greek nouns have ontis ; as, Laomedon, 
-ontis, a king of Troy. So Acheron, Chamcdeon, Phaethon, 
Charon, &c. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 31 

AR and UR. 

5. Nouns in ar and ur are neuter, and add is to 
form the genitive ; as, 

Calcar, calcaris, a spur ; murmur, murmuris, a noise. So, 

Guttur, -uris, the throat. Lacunar, -aris, a ceiling. 

Jubar, -iiris, a sunbeam. Nectar, -aris, drink of the gods. 

Except, Ebur, -oris, n. ivory. Jecur, -oris, or jeclnoris, n. the liver. 

Furfur, -uris, m. bran. Salar, -aris, m. a trout. 

Hepar, -atis, or -atos, n. the liver. Turtur, -uris, m. a turtle-dove. 

ER and OR. 

6. Nouns in er and or are masculine, and form 
the genitive by adding is ; as, 

Anser, anseris, a goose, or gander ; agger, -eris, a rampart ; 
der, -eris, the air; career, -eris, a prison; asser, -eris, & 
assis, -is, a plank ; dolor, -oris, pain ; color, -oris, a color. So, 

Actor, a doer, a pleader. Lictor, an officer among the Rubor, blushing. 

Creditor, he that trusts or Romans, wlio attended the Sator, a sower, a father. 

lends. magistrates. Tepor, warmth. 

Debitor, a debtor. Nidor, a strong smell. Tonsor, a barber. 

Ffetor, an ill smell. Paedor, filth. Vapor, a vapor. 

Honor, honor. Pudor, shame. Venator, a hunter, &c 

Rhetor, a rhetorician, has rhetiris ; castor, a beaver, -oris. 

Exc. 1. The following nouns are neuter : 

Acer,, -eris, a maple-tree. Marmor, -oris, marble. 

Ador, oris, fine wheat. Papaver, -eris, poppy. 

iEquor, -oris, a plain, the sea. Piper, -eris, pepper. 

Cadaver, -eris, a dead carcass. Spinther, -eris, a clasp. 

Cicer, -eris, vetches. Tuber, -eris, a swelling. 

Cor, cordis, the heart. Uber, -eris, a pap ox fatness. 

Iter, itineris, a journey. Ver, veris, the spring. 

Arbor, -oris, a tree, is fern. Tuber, -eris, the fruit of the tuber-tree, is masc. but 
when put for the tree, is fem. 

Exc. 2. Nouns in her have bris in the genitive ; as, hie 
imber, imbris, a shower. So Insuber, October, &c. 

Nouns in ter have tris ; as, venter, ventris, the belly ; pater, 
patris, a father ; f rater, -tris, a brother ; accipiter, -tris, a 
hawk ; but crater, a cup, has crateAs ; soter, -eris, a savior ; 
later, a tile, lateris ; Jupiter, the chief of the Heathen Gods, 
has Jovis ; linter, -tris, a little boat, is masc. or fem. 

AS. 

7/ Nouns in as are feminine, and have the geni- 
tive in atis ; as, cctas^ cetdtis, an age. So, 

^Bstas, the summer: Satietas, a glut or disgust. Veritas, truth. 

Pietas, piety. Simultas, a feud, a grudge. Voluntas, will. 

Potestas, power. Tempestas, a time, a tempest. Voluptas, pleasure. 

Probltas, probity. Uber tas, fert ility. Anas, a duck, has anatis. 

Exc. 1. As, assis, m. a piece of money, or Mas, maris, m. a male, 
any thing which may be divided Vas, vadis, ra. a surety, 
into twelve parts. Vas, vasis, m. a vessel. 

Note. All the parts of as are likewise masculine, except uncin, an ounce, fem.; as, 
sextans, 2 ounces; quadrans, 3; triens, 4; quincunx, 5; semis, 6; septum, 7; bcs,8; 
dodrans, 9 ; dextans, or decunx, 10; deunx, 11 ounces. 



32 THIRD DECLENSION. 

Exc. 2. Of Greek nouns in as, some are masculine ; some 
feminine ; some neuter. Those that are masculine have antis 
in the genit. as, gigas, gigantis, a giant ; ddamas, -antis, an 
adamant ; elephas, -antis, an elephant. Those that are femi- 
nine have ddis, or ados ; as, lampas, lampddis, or lampados, 
a lamp ; dromas, -adis, f., a dromedary : likewise Areas, an 
Arcadian, though masculine, has Ar cadis, or -ados. Those 
that are neuter have atis ; as, bucheras, -atis, an herb ; arto- 
creas, -atis, a pie. 

ES. 

8. Nouns in es are feminine, and in the genitive 
change es into is ; as, 
ritpes, rupis, a rock ; nubes, nubis, a cloud. So, 
JSdes, or -is, a temple; pi. Fides, a fiddle. Soboles, an offspring. 

a house. Lues, a plague. Strages, a slaughter. 

Cautes, a rugged rock. Moles, a heap. Tabes, a consumption. 

Fames, a hunger. Palumbes, m. or f. a pigeon. Vulpes, a fox. 

Exc. 1. The following nouns are masculine, and most of 

them likewise excepted in the formation of the genitive : 

Ales, -itis, a bird. Palmes, -itis, a vine-branch. 

Ames, -ids, a fowler's staff. Paries, -etis, a wall. 

Aries, -etis, a ram. Pes, pedis, the feet. 

Bes, bessis, two thirds of a pound. Pedes, -itis, a footman. 

Cespes, -itis, a turf Poples, -itis, the ham of the leg. 

Eques, -itis, a horseman. Praeses, -id is, a president. 

Fomes, -itis, fuel. Satelles, -itis, a lifeguard. 

Gurges, -itis, a whirlpool. Stipes, -itis, the stock of a tree. 

Heres, -edis, an heir. Termes, -itis, an olive-bough. 

Indiges, -etis, a man deified. Trames, -itis, a path. 

Interpres, -etis, an interpreter. Veles, -itis, a light-armed soldier. 

Limes, -itis, a limit or bound. Vates, vatis, a prophet. 

Miles, -itis, a soldier. Verres, verris, a boar-pig. 

Obses, -idis, a hostage. 
But ales, miles, heres, interpres, obses, and vates, are also used in the feminine, 

Exc. 2. The following feminines are excepted in the form- 
ation of the genitive : 

Abies, -etis, a fir-tree. Requies, -etis, or requiei, (of the fifth 
Ceres, -eris, the goddess of corn. declension) rest. 

Merces, -edis, a reward, hire. Seges, -etis, growing corn. 

Merges, -itis, a handful of corn. Teges, -etis, a mat or coverlet. 

Quies, -etis, rest. Tudes, -is, or -itis, a hammer. 

To these add the following adjectives : 

Ales, -itis, svnft. Praepes, -etis, swift-tvinged. 

Bipes, -edis, two-footed. Reses, -idis, idle. 

Quadriipes, -edis, four-footed. Sospes, -itis, safe. 

Deses, -idis, slothful. Siiperstes, -itis, surviving. 

Dives, -itis, rich. Teres, -etis, round and long, smooth. 

Hebes, -etis, dull. Lbcuples, -etis, rich. 

Perpes, -etis, perpetual. Mansues, -etis, gentle. 

Exc. 3. Greek nouns in es are commonly masculine; as, 
hie acindces, -is, a Persian sword, a scimitar ; but some are 
neuter ; as, hoc eacoethes, an evil custom, hippomdnes, a kind 



THIRD DECLENSION. 33 

of poison which grows in the forehead of a foal ; panacea, the 
herb all-heal; nepenthes, the herb kill-grief. Dissyllables, 
and the monosyllable Cres, a Cretan, have etis in the genitive ; 
as, hie magnes, magnetis, a loadstone ; tapes, -etis, tapestry ; 
lebes, -etis, a caldron. The rest follow the general rule. 
Some proper nouns have either etis, or is ; as, Dares, Daretis, 
or Daris ; which is also sometimes of the first declension ; 
Achilles, has Achillis ; or Achilli, contracted for Achillei or 
Achillei, of the second declension, from Achilleus: So Ulysses, 
Pericles, Verres, Aristoteles, &c. 

IS. 

9. Nouns in is are feminine, and have their 
genitive the same with the nominative ; as, 

auris, auris, the ear ; avis, avis, a bird. So, 

Apis, a bee. Messis, a harvest or crop. Ratis, a raft. 

Bllis, the gall, anger. Naris, the nostril. Rudis, a rod. 

Classis, a fleet. Neptis, a niece. Vallis, a valley. 

Felis, a cat. Ovis, a sheep. Vestis, a garment. 

Foris, a door; oftener plur. Pellis, a skin. Vitis, a vine. 

fores, -ium. Pestis, a plague. 

Exc. 1. The following nouns are masculine, and form the 
genitive according to the general rule : 

Axis, axis, an axle-tree. Ensis, a sword. Patruelis, a cousinxgerman. 

Aqualis, a water-pot, an Fascis, a bundle. Piscis, a fish. 

ewer. Fecialis, a herald. Postis, a post. 

Callis, a beaten road. Follis, a pair of bellows. Sod alls, a companion. 

Caulis,^e stalk of an herb. Fustis, a staff. Toms, afire-brand. 

Collis, a hill. Mensis, a month. Unguis, the nail. 

Cenchris, a kind of ser- Miigilis, or -il, a mullet-fish. Vectis, a lever. 

pent. Orbis, a circle, the world. Vermis, a worm. 

To these add Latin nouns in nis ; as, panis, bread ; crinis, 
the hair ; ignis, fire ; funis, a rope, &c. But Greek nouns in 
nis are feminine, and have the genitive in idis; as, tyrannis, 
tyrannidis, tyranny. 

Exc. 2. The following nouns are also masculine, but form 
their genitive differently : 

Cinis, -eris, ashes.^ Pubis, or piibes, -is, or oftener -eris, mar' 

Cucumis, -is, or -eris, a cucumber. riageable. 

Dis, ditis, the god of riches, or rich, an Pulvis, -eris, dust. 

adj. Quiris, -Itis, a Roman. 

Glis, gllris, a dormouse, a rat. Samnis, -itis, a Sam?iite. 

Impvibis, or impubes, -is, or -eris, not' Sanguis, -inis, blood. 

marriageable. Semis, -issis, the half of any thing. 

Lapis, -idis, a stone. Vomis, or -er, -eris, a plowshare. 

Pulvis and cinis are sometimes feminine. Semis is also sometimes neuter, and 
then it is indeclinable. Pubis and impubis are properly adjectives; thus, 
Puberibus caulem foliis, a stalk with downy leaves, Virg. JEn. xii. 413. Im- 
pube corpus, the body of a boy not having yet got the down (pubes, -is, f ) of 
youth, Horat. Epod. 5. 13! ' Exsanguis, bloodless, an adjective, has exsanguis in 
the genitive. 



34 THIRD DECLENSION. 

Exc. 3. The following are either masculine or feminine, and 
form the genitive according to the general rule : 

Amnis, a river. Finis, the end ; fines, the boundaries of 
Anguis, a snake. afield, or territories, is always masc. 

Ca.na.lis, a conduit-pipe. ScrObis, or scrobs, a ditch. 

Clunis, the buttock. Torquis, a chain. 
Corbis, a basket. 

Exc. 4. These feminines have idis : Cassis, -idis, a helmet ; 
cuspis, -idis, the point of a spear ; capis, -idis, a kind of cup ; 
promulsis, -idis, a kind of drink, metheglin. Lis, strife, f. 
has litis. 

Exc. 5. Greek nouns in is are generally feminine, and form 
the genitive variously : some have eos or ios ; as, hceresis, 
-eos, or -ios, or -is, a heresy ; so, basis, f. the foot of a pillar ; 
phrasis, a phrase; phthisis, a consumption; poesis, poetry; 
metropolis, a chief city, &c. Some have idis, or idos ; as, 
Paris, -idis, or -idos, the name of a man ; aspis, -idis, f., an 
asp ; ephemeris, -idis, f., a day-book ; iris, -idis, f., the rain- 
bow; pyxis, -idis, f., a box. So, &gis, the shield of Pallas; 
cantharis, a sort of fly ; periscelis, a garter ; proboscis, an 
elephant's trunk; pyramis, a pyramid; and tigris, a tiger, 
'idis, seldom tigris: all fern. Part have idis, as Psophis, 
-idis, the name of a city; others have inis; a.s,Eleusis, -inis, 
the name of a city ; and some have entis ; as, Simois, Simo- 
entis, the name of a river. Charis, one of the graces, has 
Charitis. 

OS. 

10. Nouns in os are masculine, and have the 
genitive in otis ; as, 

nepos, -otis, a grandchild ; sdcerdos, -otis, a priest, also fem. 
Exc. 1. The following are feminine : 

Arbos, or -or, oris, a tree. Eos, eois, the morning. 

Cos, cotis, a whetstone. Glos, gloris, the husband's sister, ot bro- 

Dos, dStis, a dowry. ther's wife. 

Exc. 2. The following masculines are excepted in the/ 
genitive : 

Flos, floris, a flower. Custos, -odis, a keeper; also fem. 

Honos, or -or, -oris, honor. Heros, herois, a hero. 

Labos, or -or, -oris, labor. Minos, -5is, a king of Crete. 

Lepos, or -or, -oris, wit. Tros, Trois, a Trojan. 

Mos, mbris, a custom. Bos, bovis, m. or t an ox or cow. 
Ros, roris, dew. 

Exc. 3. Os, ossis, a bone ; and os, oris, the mouth, are 
neuter. 

Exc. 4. Some Greek nouns have ois ; as, heros, -ois, a hero, 
or great man : So, Minos, a king of Crete ; Tros, a Trojan ; 
thos, a kind of wolf. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 35 

US. 

11. Nouns in us are neuter, and have their 
genitive in oris ; as, 

pectus, pectoris, the breast ; tempus, temporis, time. So, 

Corpus, a body. Frigus, cold. Pen us, provisions. 

Decus, honor. Littus, a shore. Pignus, a pledge. 

Dedecus, disgrace. Nemus, a grove. Stergus, dung. 

Facinus, a great action. Pecus, came. Tergus, a hide. 
Foenus, usury. 

Exc. 1 . The following neuters have eris : 
Acus, chaff. Munus, a gift or office. Scelus, a crime. 

Funus, a funeral. 01 us, pot-herbs. Sid us, a star. 

Foedus, a covenant. Onus, a burden. Vellus, a fleece of wool. 

Genus, a kind or kindred. Opus, a work. Viscus, an enlrail. 

Glomus, a clew. Pondus, a weight. Ulcus, a bile. 

Latus, the side. Rudus, rubbish. Vulnus, a wound. 

Thus aceris, funeris, &c. Glomus, a clew, is sometimes masculine, and has 
glomi, of the second declension. Venus, the goddess of love, and vetus, old, an 
adjective, likewise have eris. 

Exc. 2. The following nouns are feminine, and form the 
genitive variously. 

Incus, -udis, an anvil. Juventus, -utis, youth. 

Palus, -udis, a pool or morass. Sal us, -utis, safety. 

Pecus, (not used) -udis, a sheep. Senectus, -utis, old age. 

Subscus, -udis, a dove-tail. Servitus, -utis, slavery. 

Tellus, -iiris, the earth, or goddess of the Virtus, -utis, virtue. 

earth. Intercus, -utis, a hydropsy. 

Intercus is properly an adjective, having aqua understood. 

Exc. 3. Monosyllables of the neuter gender have uris in 
the genitive ; as, 

Crus, cruris, the leg. Rus, ruris, the country. 

Jus, juris, law or right; also broth. Thus, thuris, frankincense. 

Pus, piiris, the corrupt matter of any sore. So Mus, miiris, masc. a mouse. 

Ugus, or -ur, a Ligurian, has Liguris ; lepus, masc. a hare, leporis ; sus, masc. 
or fem. a swine, suis ; grus, masc. or fern, a crane, gruis. 

CEdipus, the name of a man, has (Edipodis : sometimes it is of the second 
declension, and has CEdipi. The compounds of pus have odis ; as, tripus, masc. 
a tripod, tripodis; but lagopus, -odis, a kind of bird, or the herb hare's foot, is 
fem. Names of cities have untis; as, Trapezus, Trapezuntis; Opus, Opuntis. 

YS. 

12. Nouns in ys are all borrowed from the Greek, 
and are for the most part feminine. In the genitive 
they have sometimes yis or yos ; as, 

Haec chelys, chelyis or -yos, a harp ; Capys, Capyis, or -yos, the name of a man ; 
sometimes they have ydis, or ydos ; as, haec chlamis, chlamydis, or chlamydos, a 
soldier's cloak ; and sometimes ynis, or ynos ; as, Trachys, Trachynis, or Tra- 
chynos, the name of a town. 

&S, AUS, EUS. 
13. The nouns ending in as and aus, are, 

^s, aeris, n. brass or money. Laus, laud is, f. praise. 

Fraus, fraudis, f fraud. ' Praes, prsedis, m. or f a surety. 



36 THIRD DECLENSION. 

Substantives ending in the syllable eus are all proper names, and have the 
genitive in eos; as, Orpheus, Orpheos; Tereus, Tereos. But these nouns are 
also found in the second declension, where eus is divided into two syllables : 
thus, Orpheus, genit. Orphei, or sometimes contracted Orphei, and that into 
Orphi 

S, with a consonant before it. 

14. Nouns ending in s with a consonant before 
it, are feminine ; and form the genitive by chang- 
ing the s into is or tis ; as, 

trabs, trdbis, a beam ; scobs, scobis, saw-dust ; hiems, Mentis, 
winter ; gens, gentis, a nation ; stips, stipis, alms ; pars, partis, 
a part ; sors, sortis, a lot ; mors, -tis, death. 

Exc. 1. The following nouns are masculine : 

Chalybs, -ybis, steel. Merops, -opis, a woodpecker. 

Dens, -tis, a tooth. Mons, -tis, a mountain. 

Fons, -tis, a well. Pons, -tis, a bridge. 

Gryps, gryphis, a griffin. Seps, sepis, a kind of serpent ; but, 

Hydrops, -opis, the dropsy. Seps, sepis, a hedge, is fem. 

Exc. 2. The following are either masculine or feminine : 

Adeps, adipis, fatness. Serpens, -tis, a serpent. 

Rudens, -tis, a cable. Stirps, stirpis, the root of a tree. 

Scrobs, scrobis, a ditch. Stirps, an offspring, always fem. 

Ammans, a living creature, is found in all the genders, but most frequently 
in the feminine or neuter. 

Exc. 3. Polysyllables in eps change e into i ; as, haec for- 
ceps, forcipis, a pair of tongs ; princeps, -ipis, a prince or 
princess ; particeps, -cipis, a partaker ; so likewise cailebs* 
cmlibis, an unmarried man or woman. The compounds of 
caput, have cipitis; as, prceceps, prcecipitis, headlong; anceps, 
ancipitis, doubtful ; biceps, -cipitis, two-headed. Auceps, a 
fowler, has aucilpis. 

Exc. 4. The following feminines have dis: 

Frons, frondis, the leaf of a tree. Juglans, -dis, a walnut. 

Glans, glandis, an acorn. _ Lens, lendis, a nit. 

So libripens, libripendis, m. a weigher, nefrens, -dis, m. or f. a grice, or pig ; 
and the compounds of cor ; as, concors, concordis, agreeing ; discors, disagree- 
ing; vecors, mad, &c. But frons, the forehead, has froniis, fem. and lens, a kind 
of pulse, lentis, also fem. 

Exc. 5. lens, going, and aniens, being able, participles from 
the verbs eo and qiteo, with their compounds, have euntis : 
thus, tens, euntis ; quiens, queuntis ; rediens, redeuntis ; ne- 
quiens, nequeuntis ; but ambiens, going round, has ambientis. 

Exc. 6. Tifyns, a city in Greece, the birth-place of Her- 
cules, has Tyrinthis. 

T. 

15. There is only one noun in t, namely, caput, capitis, 
the head, neuter. In like manner, its compounds, sinciput, 
sincipitis, the forehead ; and occiput, -itis, the hind-head. 



THIHD DECLENSION. 



37 



16. Nouns in x are feminine, and in the genitive 
change x into cis ; as, 

vox, vocis, the voice : lux, lucis, light. So, 



Appendix, -icis, an addi- 
tion ; dim. -iciila. 
Arx, arcis, a castle. 
Celox, -oris, a pinnace. 
Cervix, -Icis, the neck. 
Cicatrix, -icis, a scar. 
Comix, -Tcis, a crow. 
Coturnix, -icis, a quail. 
Coxendix, -icis, the hip. 



Crux, criicis, a cross. 
Faex, -cis, dregs. 
Falx, -cis, a scythe. 
Fax, -acis, a torch. 
Filix, -icis, a fern. 
Lanx, -cis, a plate. 
Lodix, -icis, a sheet. 
Meretrix, -Icis, a courte- 
san. 



Merx, -cis, merchandise. 
Nutrix, -icis, a nurse. 
Nux, nucis, a nut 
Pax, -acis, peace. 
Pix, picis, pitch. 
Radix, -icis, a root. 
Salix, -icis, a willow. 
Vibix, or -ex, -icis, the 
mark of a wound. 



Exc. 1. Polysyllables in ax and ex are masculine; as, tho- 
rax, -acis, a breastplate; Cor ax, -acis, a raven. Ex in the 
genitive is changed into icis; as, pollex, -ids, m. the thumb. 
So the following nouns, also masculine : 

Apex, the tuft or tassel on CImex, a bug. 
the top of a priest's cap, Codex, a book, 
the cap itself, or the top Culex, a gnat, a midge, 
of any thing. Friitex, a shrub. 

Artifex, an artist. Index, an informer. 

Carnifex, an executioner. Latex, any liquor. 

Caudex, the trunk of a Murex, a slwll-flsh, pur- 
tree, pie. 
Vervex, a wether sheep, has vervecis ; famisex, a mower of hay, famise'cis ; 

resex, m.-ecis, a vine-branch cut off 

To these masculines add, 

Calix, -icis, a cup. 
Calyx, -ycis, the bud of a flower. 
Coccyx, -ygis, vel ycis, a cuckoo. 
Fornix, -icis, a vault. 



Pod ex, the breech. 

Pontifex, a chief priest. 

Piilex, a flea. 

Ramex, a rupture. 

Sorex, a rat. 

Vertex, the crown of the 

head. 
Vortex, a whirlpool. 



Oryx, -ycis, a wild goat. 
Phoenix, -icis, a bird so called. 
Tradux, -iicis, a graft or offset of a 
vine ; also fem. 

But the following polysyllables in ax and ex are feminine : 

Fornax, -acis, a furnace. Smilax, -acis, the herb rope-weed. 

Panax, -acis, the herb all-heal. Cerex, -icis, a sedge. 

Climax, -acis, a ladder. Supellex, supellectilis, household fur- 

Forfex, -icis, a pair of scissors. niture. 

Halex, -ecis, a herring. 

Exc. 2. A great many nouns in x are either masculine or 
feminine ; as, 

Calx, -cis, the heel, or the end of any 
tiling, the goal; but calx, lime, is al- 
ways fem. 

Cortex, -icis, the bark of a tree. 

Hystrix, -icis, a porcupine. 

Imbrex, -icis, a gutter or roof tile. 

Lynx, -cis, an ounce, a beast of a very Silex, -icis, a flint, 
quick sight. Varix, -icis, a swoln vein. 

Exc. 3. The following nouns depart from the general rule 
in forming the genitive : 

Aquilex, -egis, a well-maker. Frux, {not used,) friigis, f cor7i. 

Conjunx, or -ux, -ugis, a husband or Grex, grcgis, m. or f. a flock. 
voifi* Lex, legis, f. a law. 

D 



Limax, -acis, a snail. 
Obex, -icis, a bolt or bar. 
Perdix, -Icis, a partridge. 
tumex, -icis, a pumice-stone. 
Rumex, -icis, sorrel, an herb. 
Sandix, -icis, a purple color. 



38 THIRD DECLENSION. 

Phalanx, -angis, f. a phalanx. . Nix, nTvis, f. snow. 

Remex, -lgis, a rower. Nox, noctis, f. night. 

Rex, regis, a king. Senex, senis, (an adj.) old. 

Exc. 4. Greek nouns in x, both with respect to gender and 
declension, are as various as Latin nouns ; thus, bombyx, bom- 
bycis, a silk-worm, masc. but when it signifies silk, or the 
yarn spun by the worm, it is feminine ; onyx, masc. or fern. 
onychls, a precious stone ; and so sardonyx ; larynx, laryngis, 
fern, the top of the wind-pipe : Phryx, Phrygis, a Phrygian ; 
sphinx, -ngis, a fabulous hag ; strix, -igis, f., a screech-owl ; 
Styx, -ygis, f. a river in hell ; Hylax, -ctis, the name of a 
dog ; Bibrax, Bibractis, the name of a town, &c. 

DATIVE SINGULAR. 

The dative singular anciently ended also in e ; as, Esuriente 
leoni ex ore exculpere pradam, To pull the prey out of the 
mouth of a hungry lion, Lucil. Haret pede pes, Foot sticks 
to foot, JEn. x. 361. for esurienti and pedi. 

EXCEPTIONS IN THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 

ExCi 1. The following nouns have the accusative in im: 

Amussis, f. a mason's rule. Cannabis, f. hemp. 

Buris, £ the beam of a plow. Cuciimis, m. a cucumber. 

Gummis, f. gum. Sitis, f. thirst. 

Mephitis, f a damp or strong smell. Tussis, f. the cough. 

Ravis, f. hoarseness. Vis, £ strength. 

Sinapis, f. mustard. 

To these add proper names, 1. of cities, and other places; as, Hispalis, Seville, 
a city in Spain ; Syrtis, a dangerous quicksand on the coast of Libya ; — 2. of 
rivers ; as, Tiberis, the Tiber, which runs past Rome ; Bcetis, the Guadalquivir, 
in Spain : So Athesis, Araris, Athis, Liris, &c. — 3. of gods ; as, Anubis, Apis, 
Osiris, Serdpis, deities of the Egyptians. But these sometimes make the accu- 
sative also in in ; thus, Syrtim or Syrtin, Tiberim or -in, &c. 

Exc. 2. Several nouns in is have either em or im; as, 

Clavis, f. a key. Pelvis, £ a bason. Securis, f. an ax. 

Cutis, f. the skin. Pupjriy, f. the stern of a Sementis, f. a sowinq. 

Febris, £ a fever. ship. Strigillis, f, a horse-comb.. 

Navis, £ a ship. Restis, £ a rope. Turris, £ a tower. 

Thus navem, or navim; puppem, or puppim, &c. The 
ancients said avim, aurim, ovim, pestim, vallim, vitim, &c; 
which are not to be imitated. 

Exc. 2. Greek Nouns form their accusative variously : 

1 Greek nouns, whose genitive increases in is or os impure, that is, with a 
consonant going before, have the accusative in em or a, as lampas, lampadis, 
or lampados, lampadem, or lampada. In like manner, these three, which have 
is pure in the genitive, or is with a vowel before it : Tros, Trois, Troem, and 
Troa, a Trojan ; heros, a hero ; Minos, a king of Crete. The three following 
have almost always a ; Pan, the god of shepherds ; other, the sky ; delphin, a 
dolphin ; thus, Pdna, mthSra, delphlna. 

2 Masculine Greek nouns in is, which have their genitive in is or os im- 
pure, form the accusative in im or in; sometimes in idem, never tda; as, Paris, 
Parzdis or Paridos ; Parim or Parin, sometimes Partdem, never Partda.— So 
Daphnis. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 39 

3. Feminines in is, increasing impurely in the genitive, have commonly 
tdem or tela, but rarely im or in ; as, Elis, Ettdis or Ettdos, Ettdem or EVtda ; 
seldom Elim or Elin, a city in Greece. In like manner feminines in ys, ydos, 
have ydem or yda, not ym or yn in the accusative ; as, cMamys, -ydem, or -yda, 
not chlamyn, a soldier's cloak. 

4. But all Greek nouns in is or ys, whether masculine or feminine, having is 
or os pure in the genitive, form the accusative by changing s of the nominative 
into m orn; as, metamorphosis, -eos, or -ios, metamorphosim or in, a change ; 
Tethys, -yos or -yis, Teihym or -yn ; the name of a goddess. 

0. Nouns ending in the diphthong eus, have the accusative in ea; as Theseus, 
Tkesea; Tydeus, Tydea. 

EXCEPTIONS IN THE ABLATIVE SINGULAR. 

Exc. 1. Neuters in e, al, and ar, have i in the ablative; 
as, sedile, sedili ; animal, animdli ; calcar, calcari. Except 
proper names; as, Prceneste, abl. Prceneste, the name of a 
town : and the following neuters in ar : 

Far, farre, corn. Nectar, -are, drink of the gods. 

He par, -ate, the liver. Par, pare, a match, a pair. 

Jubar, -are, a sunbeam. Sal, sale, salt. 

Exc. 2. Nouns which have im or in in the accusative, have 
i in the ablative ; as, vis, vim, vi : but canabis, Batfis, and 
tigris, have e or i. 

Nouns which have em or im in the accusative, make their 

ablative in e or i ; as, turris, turre or turri ; but restis, a rope, 

and cutis, the skin, have e only. 

Several nouns which have only en\in the accusative, have e or i in the abla- 
tive ; as, finis, supellex, vectis, pugil, a champion ; mugil or mugilis ; so, rus, 
occiput : also names of towns, when the question is made by ubi ; as, habitat 
Carthagine or Carthagini, he lives at Carthage. So civis, classis, sors, imber, 
anguis, avis, postis, fustis, amnis, and ignis; but these have oftener e. Canalis 
has only i. The most ancient writers made the ablative of many other nouns 
in i ; as, mstati, card, lapadi, ovi, &c. 

Exc. 3. Adjectives used as substantives have commonly 
the same ablative with the adjectives ; as, bipennis, 4, a hal- 
berd ; molaris, -i, a millstone ; \uadriremis, -i, a ship with 
four banks of oars. So, the names of months, Aprilis, 4 ; 
December, ~bri, &c. But riidis, f. a rod given to gladiators 
when discharged ; juvenis, a young man, have only e ; and 
likewise nouns ending in il, x, ceps, or ns ; as, 
Adolescens, a young man. Princeps, a prince. Torrens, a brook. 

Infans, an infant. Senex, an old man. Vigil, a vxitchman. 

Thus, adolescente, infante, sene, &c. 

Exc. 4. Nouns in ys which have ym in the accusative, make 
their ablative in ye or y ; as, Atys, Atye or Aty, the name of 
a man. 

NOMINATIVE PLURAL. 

1. The nominative plural ends in es, when the noun is 
either masculine or feminine ; as, sermones, rupes. 



40 THIKD DECLENSION. 

Nouns in is and es have sometimes in tbe nominative plural 
also eis or is ; as, puppes, puppeis, or puppis. 

2. Neuters which have e in the ablative singular, have a in 
the nominative plural ; as, capita, itinera : but those which 
have i in the ablative make ia ; as, sedllia, calcaria. 

GENITIVE PLURAL. 

Nouns which in the ablative singular have i only, or e and i 
together, make the genitive plural in ium ; but if the ablative 
be in e, the genitive plural has um ; as, sedile, sedili, sedilium ; 
turris, turre or turri, turrium ; caput, capite, capitum. 

Exc. 1. Monosyllables in as have ium, though their ablative 
end in e ; as, mas, a male, mare, marium; vas, a surety, va- 
dium : but polysyllables have rather um ; as, civitas, a state 
or city, civitatum, and sometimes civitatium. 

Exc. 2. Nouns in es and is, which do not increase in the 
genitive singular, have also ium; as, hostis, an enemy, hostium. 
So likewise nouns ending in two consonants ; as, gens, a nation, 
gentium ; vrbs, a city, urbium. 

But the following have um; parens, votes, panis, juvenis, 
and canis* 

Exc. 3. The following nouns form the genitive plural in 
ium, though they have e only in the ablative singular : 

Caro, camis, f flesh. Lis, litis, f. strife. 

Cohors, -tis, £ a company. Mus, mfiris, m. a mouse. 

Cor, cordis, n. the heart. Nix, nivis, f. snow. 

Cos, co tis, £ a hone or whetstone. Nox, noctis, f the night. 

Dos, dotis, f. a dowry. Os, ossfe, n. a bone. 

Faux, faucis, f. the jaws. Quiris, -itis, a Roman. 

Glis, gliris, m. a rat. Samnis, -itis, m. or f. a Samnite. / 

Lar, laris, m. a household god. Uter, utris, m. a bottle. 

Linte", -tris, m. or £ a little boat. 

Thus Samnitium, lintrium, litium, &c. Also the compounds ofuncia and as ; 
as, septunx, seven ounces, septuncium ; bes, eight ounces, bessium ; bos, an ox or 
cow, has bourn, not bovum ; and in the dative and ablative, bobus or bubus, not 
bovibus; thus, 

Sing. Plur. 

N. bos, A. bovem, N. boves, A. boves, 

G. bo vis, V. bos, G. boum, V. boves, 

D. bovi, A. bove : D. bobus or bubus, A. bobus or bubus. 

Greek nouns have generally um ; as, Macedo, a Macedonian ; Arabs, an Ara- 
bian ; JEthiops, an Ethiopian ; Monoceros, an unicorn ; Lynx, a beast so called ; 
Thrax, a Thracian ; Macedonum, Ardbum, AZthiopum, Monocerotum, Lyncum, 
Thracum. But those which have a or sis in the nominative singular sometimes 
form the genitive plural in on ; as, Epigramma, epigrammdtum, or epigramma- 
ton, an epigram ; metamorphosis, -ium, or -ebn. 

Obs. 1. Nouns which want the singular, form the genitive plural as if they 
were complete; thus, manes, m. souls departed, manium; ccelttes, m. inhabitants 
of heaven, coditum ; because they would have had in the sing, manis or manes, 
and codes. But names of feasts often vary their declension; as, Saturnalia, the 
feasts of Saturn, Saturnalium and Saturnaliorum. So Bacchanalia, Compitalia, 
Terminalia, <fcc. 



THIRD DECLENSION. 41 

Obs. 2. Nouns which have ium, in the genitive plural, are, by the poets, 
often contracted into um; as, nocentum for nocentium: and sometimes, to increase 
the number of syllables, a letter is inserted ; as, codituum for coelitum. The 
former of these is said to be done by the figure Syncope ; and the latter by 
Epenth&is. 

EXCEPTIONS IN THE DATIVE PLURAL. 

Exc. 1. Greek nouns in a have commonly tis instead of 
tibus, as, poema, a poem, poematis, rather than poematibus, from 
the old nominative poemdtum of the second declension. 

Exc. 2. The poets sometimes form the dative plural of Greek 
nouns in si, or when the next word begins with a vowel, in 
sin; as, Trodsi or Trodsin, for Troddibus, from Troas, Tro- 
adis, a Trojan woman. 

EXCEPTIONS IN THE ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR. 

Exc. 1. Nouns which have ium in the genitive plural, make 
their accusative plural in es, eis, or is; as, partes, partium, 
ace. partes, parteis, or partis. 

Exc. 2. If the accusative singular end in a, the accusative 
plural also ends in as ; as, lampas, lampddem, or lampdda, 
lampddes, or lampddas. So Tros, Troas ; heros, heroas; 
JEtihiops, JEAhiopas, &c. 

GREEK NOUNS through all the cases. 

Lampas, a lamp, f. lampddis or -ados ; -ddi ; -ddem, or -dda ; 

•as ; -dde : Plur. ddes ; -ddum ; -ddibus ; -ddes, or -ddas ; 

-ddes ; -adibus. 
Troas, f. Troddis, or -ados ; 4 ; -em or -a ; -as ; -e : 

PI. Troades ; -um ; -ibus, -si or -sin ; -es or -as ; -es ; -ibu$> 
Tros, m. Trois ; Troi ; Troem or -a ; Tros ; Troe, &c. 
Phillis, f. Phillidis, or -dos ; -di ; -dem, or -da ; -i or -is ; -de. 
Paris, m. Paridis or -dos ; -di ; -dem, Parim or -in ; -i ; -de. 
Chldmys, f. Chlamydis or -ydos ; -ydi ; -ydem or -yda ; -ys ; 

-yde, dec. 
Cdpys, m. Capyis, or -yos ; -yi ; -ym or -yn ; -y ; -ye or -y. 
Orpheus, m. -eos, -ei or -ei, -ea, -eu, abl. -eo, of the second decL 





Hseresis, fern. 




Sing. 


Plur. 


Norn. 


haeresis, Norn. 


haereses or haeresis, 


Gen. 


haeresis or haeresios or Gen. 


haeresium or haeresion or 




haereseos, 


haereseon, 


Dot. 


haeresi, Dat. 


haeresibus, 


Ace. 


haeresim, or haeresin, Ace. 


haereseas or haeresis, 


Voc. 


haeresi, Voc. 


haereses or -is, 


Abl. 


haeresi, Abl. 
d2 


haeresibus. 



42 



FOURTH DECLENSION. 





Plur. 


Norn, 


arabes, 


Gen. 


arabum and arabon, 


Dat. 


arabibus, 


Ace. 


arabas, 


Voc. 


arabes, 


Abl. 


arabibus. 



Arabs, an Arabian, masc. 
Sing. 
Norn, arabs, 
Gen. arabis, 
Dot. arabi, 

Ace. arabem, and araba, 
Voc. arabs, 
Abl. arabe. 

So decline metamorphosis, fern, and the like. 
FOURTH DECLENSION. 

Nouns in the fourth declension end in us and u. 

Nouns in us are masculine ; nouns in u are neuter, and in- 
declinable in the singular number. 

The terminations of the cases are ; nom. sing, us; gen. 
its; dat. ui ; ace. um ; voc. like the nom.; nom. ace. voc. plur. 
us or ua ; gen. uum ; dat. and abl. ibus ; as, 



Fructus, fruit, masc. 



Cornua, a horn, ?ieut. 
Plur. 
N. cornua, 
G. cornuum, 
D. cornibiis, 
A. cornu, 
V. cornua, 
A. comibus. 



Sing. Plur. Sing. 

N. fructus, N. fructus, N. cornu, 

G. fructus, G. fructuum, G. cornu, 

D. fructui, D. fructibiis, D. cornu, 

A. fructum, A. fructus, A. cornu, 

V. fructus, V. fructus, V. cornu, 

A. fructu. A. fructibus. A. comu. 

In like manner decline, 

Anfractus, a winding. Gustus, the taste. Principatus, pre-eminence. 

Cactus, a gauntlet. Halitus, breath. Processus, a progress. 

Coetus, an assembly. Ictus, a stroke. Quaestus, gain. 

Decessus, a departure. Luxus, luxury, riot. Rictus, a grinning, 

Exitus, an issue. Missus, a throw ; a turn or Ructus, a belching. 

Flatus, a blast. heat in races. Sinus, a bosom. 

Foetus, an offspring. Niirus, a daughter-in-law. TSnitru, thunder. 

Gelu, ice. Obtutus, a look. Victus, food, tyc. 

Exc. 1. The following nouns are feminine. 

Acus, a needle. Ficus, a fig. Porticus, a gallery. 

Anus, an old woman. Manus, the hand. Specus, a den. 

Domus, a house. Penus, a store-house. Tribus, a tribe. 

Penus and specus, are sometimes masc. Ficus, penus, and demus, with seve- 
ral others, are also of the second declension. Capricornus, m. the sign Capri- 
corn, although from cornu, is always of the second decl. and so are the com- 
pounds of manus ; uriimanus, having one hand ; centzmanus, &c. adj. Domus is 
but partly of the second declension ; thus, 

Domus, a house, fern. 
Sing. Plur. 

Nom. domus, Nom. domus, 

Gen. domus, or -mi, Gen. domoriim, or -uum, 

Dat. domui, or -mo, Dat. domibils, 

Ace. domum, Ace. domos, or -us, 

Voc. domus, Voc. domus, 

Abl. domo. Abl. domibus. 

Note. Domus, in the genit. signifies, of a house ; and domi, 
at home, or of home ; as, memineris domi. Terent. iv. 7. 45. 



FIFTH DECLENSION. 43 

Exc. 2. The following nouns have ubus, in the dative and 
ablative plural. 

Acus, a needle. Lacus, a lake. Specus, a den. 

Arcus, a bow. Partus, a birth. Tnbus, a tribe. 

Artus, a joint. Portus, a harbor. Veru, a spit. 

Genu, the knee. 

Portus, genu, and veru, have likewise %us ; as, portibus, or poriubus. 

Exc. 3. Jesus, the venerable name of our Savior, has urn in 
the accusative, and u in all the other cases. 

Singular. 
Nom. jesus, Dat. jesu, Voc. jesu, 

Gen. jesu, Ace. jesiim, Abl. jesu. 

Nouns of this declension anciently belonged to the third, and were declined 
like grus, grids, a crane; thus fructus, fructuis,fructui, fructuem, fruciue ; fruc- 
tues,fructuum,fructuibus,fructues,fructues,fructuibus. So that all the cases are 
contracted except the dative singular, and genitive plural. In some writers. 
we still find the genitive singular in ids; as, Ejus annuis causa, for anus. Te- 
rent Heaut. ii. 3. 46, and in others, the dative in u ; as, Resistere impetu, for 
impetui, Cic. Fara. x. 24. Esse usu, sibi, for usui, lb. xiii. 71. The gen. plur. is 
sometimes contracted ; as, currum for curruum. 

FIFTH DECLENSION. 

Nouns of the fifth declension end in es, and are of the fem- 
inine gender ; as, 

Res, a tiling, fern. 



Sing. 






Plur. 




Terminations. 


Nom. res, 




Nom 


res, 




es. 




es, 


Gen. rei, 




Gen. 


rerum, 




ei, 




erum 


Dat. rei, 




Dat. 


rebus, 




ei, 




ebus, 


Ace. rem, 




Ace. 


-res, 




em, 




es, 


Voc. res, 




Voc. 


res, 




es, 




es, 


Abl. re. 




Abl. 


rebus. 




e. 




ebus. 


In like 


manner 


Facies, 


afacej 


r em. thus, 






Sing 








Plur. 






N. facies, 


A. 


faciem, 




N. 


facies, 


A. 


facies 


, 


G. faciei, 


V. 


facies, 




G. 


facierum, 


V. 


facies 


, 


D. faciei, 


A. 


facie. 




D. 


facie bus, 


A. 


facie bus. 



Obs. In the gen. and dat. sing, of this declension, the e next to the final 
vowel is short when preceded by a consonant, as rei, but long when preceded 
by a vowel, as faciei, diei. 

Also decline 

Acies, the edge of a thing, Ingliivies, gluttony. Sanies, gore. 

or an army in order of Macies, leanness. Scabies, the scab or itch. 

battle. Materies, matter. Series, an order. 

Caries, rottenness. Pernicies, destruction. Species, an appearance. 

Caesaries, the hair. Pruluvies, a looseness. Superficies, the surface. 

Glacies, ice. Rabies, madness. Temperies, temperateness. 

Except dies, a day, masc. or fern, in the singular, and always masc. in the 
plural ; and mendies, the mid-day, or noon, masc. 

The poets sometimes make the genitive, and more rarely the dative, in e* 

The nouns of this declension are few in number, not exceeding fifty, and 
seem anciently to have been comprehended under the third declension. Most 
of them want the genitive, dative, and ablative plural, and many the plural 
altogether. 

* Also the genitive singular very seldom ends in ii or es. 



44 FIFTH DECLENSION. 

All nouns of the fifth declension end in ies, except three, fides, faith ; spes, 
hope; res, a thing; and all nouns in ies are of the fifth, except these tour, 
abies, a fir-tree ; dries, a ram; paries, a wall; and quies, rest ; which are of the 
third declension. 

COUPLED COMPOUND NOUNS. 

These nouns are formed by joining two regular nouns of 
different declensions ; as senatus-consultum, a decree of the 
senate ; compounded of the genitive senatus of the fourth, 
and the nominative consultum of the second declension. 

1. If the ? noun be composed of two, each in the nominative 
case, it is declined as both would be if taken separately ; as, 
Respublica, fern, a commonwealth, is made of res of the fifth, 
and publico, the first declension, each in the nominative ; thus, 





Sing. 




Plur. 


Norn. 


respublica, 


Nom. 


respublica?, 


Gen. 


reipublicse, 


Gen. 


rerumpublicarum, 


Dat. 


reipublicae, 


Dat. 


rebuspublicis, 


Ace. 


rempublicam, 


Ace. 


respublicas, 


Toe. 


respublica, 


Voc. 


respublica?, 


Abl. 


republica. 


AM. 


rebuspublicis. 



Also of this class is jusjurandum, an oath, made of jus the 
third, and jurandum the second declension, gen. jurisjurandi, 
dat. jurijurando, &c. throughout ; except the gen. dat. and 
abl. plural, which are not found, (because jus is rarely found 
in these cases). But jusjurandum has also jusjurandi in the 
gen.; as Nova religio jusjurandi, Cses. 

2. But if one of the nouns coupled together be in any 
oblique case, that noun is not varied ; while the nominative 
noun is ; as jurisconsultus, mas. a counsellor at law, made up 
of juris in the gen. and consultus nom. case ; thus, 





Sing. 




Plur. 


No?n. 


juris consultus, 


Nom. 


juris consulti, 


Gen. 


juris consult!, 


Gen. 


juris consultorum, 


Dat. 


juris consulto, 


Dat. 


juris consultis, 


Ace. 


juris consultum, 


Ace. 


juris consultos, 


Voc. 


juris consulte, 


Voc. 


juris consult!, 


Abl. 


juris consulto. 


Abl. 


juris consultis. 



Of this kind is tribunus-plebis, tribune of the people; gen. 
tribuni-plebis ; dat. tribuno-plebis, &c. 

Decline paterfamilias, a master of a family, like materfami- 
lias, under the first declension. 

IRREGULAR NOUNS. 
Irregular nouns may be reduced to three classes, Variable, 
Defective, and Redundant 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 45 

I. Variable Nouns. 

Nouns are variable either in gender, or declension, or in 
both. 

I. Those which vary in gender are called heterogeneous, and 
may be reduced to the following classes : 

1. Masculine in the singular, and neuter in the plural. 

Avernus, a lake in Campania, hell. Maenalus, a hill in Arcadia. 

Dindymus, a hill in Phrygia. Pangasus, a promontory in Thrace. 

Ismarus, a hill in Thrace. Taenarus, a promontory in Laconia. 

Massicus, a hill in Campania, famous Tartarus, hell. 

for excellent wines. Taygetus; a hill in Laconia. 

Thus, Averna, Avernoriim ; Dindyma, -orum, &c. These are thought by some 
to be properly adjectives, having mons understood in the singular, and juga or 
cacumina, or the like in the plural. 

2. Masc. in the sing, and in the plur. masc. and neuter. 
Jocus, a jest, pl.joci and joca ; locus, a place, pi. loci and 

loca. When we speak of passages in a book, or topics in 
discourse, loci only is used. 

3. Feminine in the singular, and neuter in the plural. 
Carbarns, a sail, pi. carbdsa ; Pergdmus, the citadel of 

Troy, pi. Pergama. 

4. Neuter in the singular, and masculine in the plural. 
Caelum, pi. cadi, heaven : Elysium, pi. Elysii, the Elysian 

fields ; Argos, pi. Argi, a city in Greece. 

5. Neuter in the singular, in the plural masc. or neut. 
Rastrum, a rake, pi. rastri, and rastra ; frcmum, a bridle, 

pi. frceni and fr cena. 

6. Neuter in the singular, and feminine in the plural. 
Delicium, a delight, pi. delicice; Epulum, a banquet, pi. 

epulce ; Balneum, a bath, pi. balnece, and balnea. 

II. Nouns which vary in declension are called heteroclites ; 
as, vas, vasis, a vessel, plur. vasa, vasorum ; jugerum, jugeri, 
an acre, plur . jugera, jugerum, jugeribus, which has likewise 
sometimes jugeris, and jugere, in the singular, from the obso- 
lete jugus or juger. 

II. Defective Nouns. 
Nouns- are defective, either in case or in number. 
Nouns are defective in cases different ways. 

1. Some nouns are altogether indeclinable; as, 
pondo, a pound or pounds; fas, right; nefas, 
wrong ; sindpi, mustard ; mane, the morning ; as, 
Clarum mane, Pers. A mane ad vesper am. Plaut. Multo mane, 
&c; cepe, an onion ; gausdpe, a rough coat, &c; all of them 
neuter. We may rank among indeclinable nouns, any word 
put for a noun ; as velle suum for sua voluntas, his own inch- 



46 IRREGULAR NOUNS. 

nation, Pers. Istud eras, for iste crastmus dies, that to-morrow, 
Mart. O Magnum Grcecorum, the Omega, or the large O of 
the Greeks. Infidus est compositum ex in et f Idus ; infidus 
is compounded of in and jidus. To these add foreign or bar- 
barous names ; that is, names which are neither Greek nor 
Latin, as, Job, Elisabet, Jerusalem, &c. 

2. Some are used only in one case, and there- 
fore called monoptota ; as, inquies, want of rest, in 
the nominative singular ; dicis, and nauci, in the 
genit. sing.: thus, 

Dicis gratia, for form's sake ; res nauci, a thing of no value ; 
inftcias, and incita or incitas, in the ace. plur.; thus, ire infi- 
cias, to deny ; ad incitas redactus, reduced to a strait, or non- 
plus ; ingrdtiis, in the abl. plur. in spite of one ; and these 
ablatives singular, noctu, in the night-time ; diu interdiu, in 
the day-time ; promptu, in readiness ; natu, by birth ; injussu, 
without command or leave ; ergo, for the sake, as, ergo illius, 
Virg. Ambdge, f. with a winding or a tedious story ; compede, 
m. with a fetter ; casse, m. with a net ; veprem, m. a brier : 
Plur. ambages, -ibus, compedes, -ibus; casses, -ium; vepres, 
4um, &c. 

3. Some are used in two cases only, and there- 
fore called diptota ; as, necesse, or -wm, necessity ; 
volupe^ or volup, pleasure; instar, likeness, bigness; 
astu, a town ; Air, the palm of the hand ; in the 
nom. and ace. singular : 

Vesper, m. abl. vespere, or vesperi, the evening ; siremps, the 
same, all alike, abl. sirempse; spontis, f. in the genitive, and 
sponte in the ablative, of its own accord: so impetis, m. and 
impete, force; verberis, n. genit. and verbere, abl. a stripe; in 
the plural entire ; verbera, verberum, verberibus, &c. repetun- 
darum, abl. repetundis, sc. pecuniis, money unjustly taken in 
the time of one's office, extortion ; suppetice, nom. plur. sup- 
petias, in the ace. help ; inferice, inferias, sacrifices to the 
dead. » 

4. Several nouns are only used in three cases, 
and therefore called triptota ; as, preci, precem, 
prece, f. a prayer, from prex, which is not used : in 
the plural it is entire, preces, precum, precibus, &c. 

Femmis, gen. from the obsolete femen, the thigh ; in the dat. 
and abl. sing. ; in the nom. ace. and voc. plur.jfefwiraa. Dica, 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 47 

a process, ace. sing, dicam, pi. dicas ; tantundem, nom. and 
ace. tantidem, genit. even as much. Several nouns in the 
plural want the genitive, dative, and ablative ; as, hiems, rus, 
thus, metus, met, far, and most nouns of the fifth declension. 

To this class of defective nouns may be added these neu- 
ters, melos, a song ; mete, songs : epos, an heroic poem ; cd* 
coethes, an evil custom ; cete, whales ; Tempe, plur. a beauti- 
ful vale in Thessaly, dec. used only in the nom. ace. and voc.; 
also grates, f. thanks. 

5. The following nouns want the nominative, 
and of consequence the vocative, and therefore are 
called tetraptota ; vicis, f. of the place or stead of 
another ; pecudis, f. of a beast ; 

Sordis, f. of filth ; ditionis, f. of dominion, power ; 6 'pis, f. of 
help. Of these, pecudis and sordis have the plural entire ; 
ditionis wants it altogether ; vicis is not used in the genitive 
plural ; opis, in the plural, generally signifies wealth or power, 
seldom help. To these add nex, slaughter ; daps, a dish of 
meat ; and frux, corn ; hardly used in the nominative singu- 
lar, but in the plural mostly entire. 

6. Some nouns only want one case, and are called 
pentaptota : thus, os, the mouth ; lux, light ; fax, a 
torch, together with some others, want the geni- 
tive plural. Chaos, n. a confused mass, wants the 
genit. sing, and the plural entirely ; dat. sing. chao. 

So satias, i. e. satietas, a glut or fill of any thing. Situs, a 
situation, nastiness, of the fourth decl. wants the gen. and 
perhaps the dat. sing, also the gen. dat. and abl. plur. 

Of nouns defective in number there are various sorts. 

1. Several nouns want the plural, from the na- 
ture of the things which they express. Such are 
the names of virtues and vices, of arts, herbs, 
metals, liquors, different kinds of corn, most ab- 
stract nouns, &c. as, 

Justitia, justice ; ambitus, ambition ; astus, cunning ; musica, 
music ; apium, parsley ,• argentum, silver ; aurum, gold ; lac, 
milk ; tritieum, wheat ; hordeum, barley ; avena, oats ; juveri* 
tus, youth, dec. But of these we find several sometimes used 
in the plural. 



48 



IRREGULAR NOUNS, 



2. The following masculines are hardly ever found in the 
plural. 



Aer, aeris, the air. 
iEther, -eris, the sky. 
Fimus, -i, dung. 
Hesperus, -i, the evening star. 
Limus, -i, slime. 
Meridies, -iei, mid-day. 
Mundus, a woman's ornaments. 
Muscus, -i, moss. 



Nemo, -inis, nobody. 

Perms, -i, or -us, all manner of provisions* 

Pontus, -i, the sea. 

Pulvis, -eris, dust. 

Sanguis, -inis, blood. 

Sopor, -Oris, sleep. 

Viscus, -i, bird-lime. 



3. The following feminines are scarcely used in the plural : 



Argilla, -ae, potter's earth. 

Fama, -&,fame. 

Humus, -i, the ground. 

Lues, -is, a plague. 

Plebs, plebis, the common people. 

Pubes, -is, the youth. 

Quies, -etis, rest. 



Sal us, -utis, safety. 

Sitis, -is, thirst. 

Supellex, -ctilis, household furniture. 

Tabes, -is, a consumption. 

Tell us, -uris, the earth. 

Vespera, -ae, the evening. 



4. These neuters are seldom used in the plural : 

Lutum, -i, clay. 



Album, -i, a list of names. 

Diluculum, -i, the dawning of day. 

Ebur, -oris, ivory. 

Gelu, ind. frost. 

Hilum, -i, the black speck of a bean f a 

trifle. 
Justitium, -i, a vacation, the time when 

courts do not sit. 
Lethum, death. 



Nihil, nihilum, or nil, nothing. 

Pelagus, -i, the sea. 

Penum, -i, and penus, -oris, all kinds 

of provisions. 
Sal, sal is, salt. 
Senium, -ii, old age. 
Ver, veris, the spring. 
Virus, -i, poison. 



5. Many nouns want the singular ; as, the names of feasts, 
books, games, and several cities ; thus, 

Apollinares, -mm, games in honor of Olympia, -orum, the Olympic games, 

Apollo. Syracus83, -arum, Syracuse. 

Bacchanalia, -ium, & -iorum, the feasts Jffierosolyma, -orum, Jerusalem ; or 
of Bacchus. Hierosolyma, -33, of the first declent 

Bucoli'ca, -orum, a book of pastorals. sion. 

6. The following masculines are hardly used in the sin- 
gular : 



Cancelli, lattices, or windows, made 
with cross-bars lihe a net ; a rail or 
balustrade round any place ; bounds 
or limits. 

Cani, gray hairs. 

Casses, -ium, a hunter's net. 

Celeres, -um, the light-horse. 

Codicilli, writings. 



Fori, the gangways of a ship, seats in 
the circus, or the cells of a bee-hive. 

Furfures, -um, scales in the head. 

Inf eri, the gods below. 

Lemiires, -um, hobgoblins, or spirit&in 
the dark. 

Liberi, children. 

Majores, -um, ancestors. 



Druides, -um, the Druids, priests of MTnores, -um, successors. 



the ancient Britons and Gauls. 

Fasces, -ium, a bundle of rods carried 
before the chief magistrates of Rome. 

Fasti, -orum, or fastus, -uum, calen- 
dars, in which were marked festival 
days, the names of magistrates, &c. 

Fines, -ium, the borders of a country, 
or a country. 



Natales, -ium, parentage. 
Posteri , posterity. - 
PrOceres, -um, the nobles. 
Pugillares, -ium, writing-tables. 
Sentes, -ium, thorns. 
Superi, the gods above. 
Vepres, -ium, briers. 



IRREGULAR NOUNS. 



49 



7. The following feminines want the singular number : 



Alpes, -ium, the Alps. Feriae, holidays. 

Angustise, difficulties. Gades, -ium, Cadiz. 

Apmae, gewgaws. Gerrae, trifles. 

Argiitiae, quirks, witticisms. Hyades, -ium, the seven 
Bigae, a chariot drawn by stars. 

two horses. Indiiciae, a truce. 

Trigae, — by three. Induviae, clothes to put on. 

Quadrigae, — by four. Ineptiae, silly stories. 

Braccae, breedies. Insidiae, shares. 

Branchiae, the gills of a Kalendae, Nonae, Id us, 



fish. 

Charites, -um, the three 
graces. 

Ciinae, a cradle. 

Decimae, tithes. 

Dirae, imprecations, the fu- 
ries. 

Divitiae, riches. 



Operae, workmen. 
Parientinae, ruinous watts. 
Partes, -ium, a party. 
Phalerae, trappings. 
Plagae, nets. 
Pleiades, -um, the seven 

stars. 
Prestigiae, enchantments. 
Primitiae, first-fruits. 
Quisquibae, sweepings. 



uum, names which the Reliquiae, a remainder. 

Romans gave to certain Salebrae, rugged placts, 

days in each month Salinae, salt-pits. 

Lapicidlnae, stone guar- Scalae, a ladder. 

ties. Scatebrae, a spring. 

Literae, an epistle. Scopae, a bosom. 

Lactes, -ium, the small Tenebrae, darkness. 

guts. Thermae, hot baths. 



Dryades, -um, the nymphs Maniibiae, spoils taken in Thermopylae, straits of 



of the woods. 
Excubiae, watches. 
Exseq uiae, funerals. 
Exuviae, spoils. 
Facetiae, pleasant sayings. 
Facultates, -ium, one's 

goods and chattels. 



war. 
MTnae, threats. 
Minutiae, little niceties. 
Niigae, trifles. ~ 
Nundinae, a market. 
Nuptiae, a marriage. 
Offucia, cheats. 



mount (Eia. 

TriCEE, toys. 

Valvae, folding doors. 

Vergiliae, the seven stars. 

Vindiciae, a claim of liber- 
ty, a defence. 



8. The following neuter nouns want the singular : 



Acta, public acts or records. 

^Estiva, sc. castra, summer quarters. 

Arma, arms. 

Bellaria, -orum, sweetmeats. 

Bona, goods. 

Brevia, -ium, shelves. 

Castra, a camp. 

Charistia, -orum, a peace-feast. 

Cibaria, victuals. 

Comitia, an assembly of the people, to 

make laws, elect magistrates, or hold 

trials. 
Crepundia, children's baubles. 
Cunabula, a cradle, an origin, 
Dicteria, scoffs, witticisms. 
Exta, the entrails. 

Februa, -orum, purifying sacrifices. 
Flabra, blasts of wind. 
Fraga, strawberries. 
Hyberna, sc. castra, winter-quarters. 
Ilia, -ium, the entrails. 
Incunabula, a cradle. 
Insecta, insects. 
Justa, funeral rites. 
Larnenta, lamentations. 
.Lautia, provisions for the entertainment 

of foreign ambassadors. 
Lustra, dens of wild beasts. 
Magalia, -ium, cottages. 

Several nouns in each of the above lists are found also in the singular, but in 
a different sense ; thus, castrum, a castle ; litera, a letter of the alphabet, &c. 

E 



Moenia, -ium, the walls of a city. 

Munia, -iorum, offices. 

Orgia, the sacred rites of Bacchus. 

Ovilia, -ium, an inclosure where the 
people went to give their votes. 

Palearia, -ium, the dewlap of a beast 

Parapherna, all things the wife brings 
her husband except her dowry. 

Parentalia, -ium, solemnities at the fu- 
neral of parents. 

Philtra, love potions. 

Praecordia, the bowels. 

Principia, the place in the camp where 
the general 's tent stood. 

Pythia, games in honor of Apollo. 

Rostra, a place in Rome made of the 
beaks of ships, from which orators 
used to make orations to the people. 

Scriita, old clothes* 

Sponsalia, -ium, espousals. 

Stativa, sc. castra, a standing camp. 

Suovetaurilia, -ium, a sacrifice of a 
swine, a sheep, and an ox. 

Talaria, -ium, winged shoes. 

Tesqua, rough places. 

Transtra, the seats where the rowers tit 
in ships. 

UtensTlia, -ium, utensils. 



50 REDUNDANT NOUNS. 

III. Redundant Nouns. 

Nouns are redundant in different ways : 1. In termination only; as, arbos and 
arbor, a tree. 2. In declension only; as, laurus, genit. lauri and laurus, a lau- 
rel-tree ; sequester, -tri, or -tris, a mediator. 3. Only in gender ; as, hie or hoc 
valgus, the rabble. 4. Both in termination and declension ; as, materia, -ce, or 
materies, -iei, matter ; plebs, -is, the common people, or plebes, -is, -ei, or con- 
tracted plebi. 5. In termination and gender; as, tonitrus -us, masc. tonitru, 
neut. thunder. 6. In declension and gender; as,penus, -i, and -us, m. or f. or 
penus, -oris, neut. all kinds of provisions. 7. In termination, gender, and de- 
clension; as, asther, -%ris, masc. and cethra, -a, fem. the sky. 8. Several nouns 
in the same declension are differently varied ; as, tigris, -is, or -zdis, a tiger ; 
to which may be added, nouns which have the same signification in different 
numbers ; as, Fidena, -ce, or Fidenm, -arum, the name of a city. 

The most numerous class of redundant nouns consists of 
those which express the same meaning by different termina- 
tions; as, menda, -ce ; and mendum, 4, a fault; cassis, -idis; 
and cassida, -dee, a helmet. So, 

Acinus, & -um, a grape-stone. Hebdomas, & -ada, a week. 

Alvear, & -e, & -ium, a bee-hive. Intrita, & -um, fine mortar, minced 

Amaracus, & -um, sweet marjorum. meat. 

Ancile, & -ium, an oval shield. Librarium, & -a, a book-case. 

Angiportus, -us, & -i, & -um, a nari'ow Maceria, & -es, -iei, a wall. 

lane. Miliiare, & -ium, a mile. 

Aphractus, & -um, an open ship. Monium, & -us. us, an admonition. 

Aplustre, & -um, the flag, colors. Muria, & -es, -iei, brine or pickle. 

Bacillus, & -um, a staff. Nasus, & -um, the nose. 

Balteus, & -um, a belt. Obsideo, & -um, a siege. 

Batillus, & -um, afire-shovel Oestrus, & -um, a gad-bee. 

Capulus, & -um, a hilt. Ostrea, & -um, an oyster. 

Capus, & -o, a capon. Peplus, & -um, a veil, a robe. 

Cepus, & -e, indec. an onion. Pistrlna, & -um, a bake-house. 

Clypeus, & -um, a shield. Pratextus, -us, & -um, a pretext. 

Colluvies, & -io, filth, dirt. Rapa, & -um, a turnip. 

Compages, & -go, a joining. Riima, & -men, the cud. 

Conger, & -grus, a tcrge eel. Ruscus, & -um, a brush. 

Crocus, & -um, saffron. Seps & sepes, £ a hedge. 

Cubitus, & -um, a cubit. Segmen, &> -mentum, a piece or par- 

Diluvium, & -es, a deluge. ins. 

Elephantus & Elephas, -antis, an ele- Sibilus, & -um, a hissing. 

phant. Sinus, & -um, a milk-pail. 

Elegus, & -eia, an elegy. . Spurcitia, & -es, rvastiness. 

Esseda, & -um, a chariot. Stramen, & -turn, straw. 

Eventus, & -um, an event Suffimen, & -turn, a perfume. 

Fulgetra, & -um, UgUning. Tignus, & -um, a plank. 

Galerus, & -um, a hat. Toral, & -ale, a bed-covering. 

Gibbus, & -a ; & -er, -eris, or -eri, a bunch, Torcular, & -are, a wine-press. 

or swelling. Viscus, & -um, birdlime. 

Giutinum, & -en, glue. V T eternus, & -um, a lethargy. 

Note. The nouns, which are called variable and defective, seem originally 
to have been redundant ; vdsa-orum, properly comes from vasum, and not from 
vas ; but custom, which gives laws to all languages, has dropped the singular 
and retained the plural ; and so of others. 

Division of Nouns according to their signification and deri- 
vation. 

1. A substantive which signifies many in the 
singular number, is called a Collective noun; as, 
populus, a people ; exercitus, an army. 



DIVISION OF NOUNS. 51 

2. A substantive derived from another substan- 
tive proper, signifying one's extraction, is called a 
Patronymic noun ; as, Priamides, the son of Pri- 
amus; Metias, the daughter of iEetes; Nerlne, the 
daughter of Nereus. 

Patronymics are generally derived from the name of the 
father : but the poets, by whom they are chiefly used, derive 
them also from the grandfather, or from some other remark- 
able person of the family ; sometimes likewise from the founder 
of a nation or people ; as, JEacides, the son, grandson, great- 
grandson, or one of the posterity of JEacus ; Romultdce, the 
Romans, from their first king, Romulus. 

Patronymic names of men end in des; of women 
in is, as, or ne. Those in des and ne are of the 
first declension, and those in is and as, of the 
third ; as, Priamides, -dee, &c. pi. dee, -darum, &c; 
Nerlne, -es; Tynddris, -idis or -idos; JEetias, -adis, 
&c. # 

3. A noun derived from a substantive proper, 
signifying one's country, is called a Patrial or 
Gentile noun; as, Tros, Trois, a man born at Troy; 
Troas, -adis, a woman born at Troy : 

Siculus, -z, a Sicilian man ; Sicelis, -idis, a Sicilian woman ; 
so, Macedo, -onis ; Arpinas, -citis, a man born in Macedonia, 
Arpinum; from Troja, Sicilia, Macedonia, Arpinum. But 
patrials for the most part are to be considered as adjectives, 
having a substantive understood ; as, Romanus, Atheniensis, 
&c. 

4. A substantive derived from an adjective, ex- 
pressing simply the quality of the adjective, with- 
out regard to the thing in which the quality exists, 
is called an Abstract ; as, justitia, justice; bonttas, 
goodness ; dulcedo, sweetness ; from Justus, just ; 
bonus, good ; dulcis, sweet. 

The adjectives from which these abstracts come, are called 
Concretes; because, besides the quality, they also suppose 
something to which it belongs. Abstracts commonly end 
, - *- 

♦ Decline all patronymics in des, like Jlnchtses; and tiiose in ne, decline like 
Penelope. 



52 ADJECTIVE. 

in a, as, or do, and are very numerous, being derived from 
most adjectives in the Latin tongue. 

5. A substantive derived from another substan- 
tive, signifying a diminution or lessening of its sig- 
nification, is called a Diminutive ; as, tibellus^ a 
little book ; chartula, a little paper ; opusculum, a 
little work ; corculum, a little heart ; 

reticulum a small net ; scdbellum, a small form ; lapillus, a 
little stone ; cultellus, a little knife ; pagella, a little page ; 
from liber, charta, opus, cor, rete, scamnum, lapis, culter, pa- 
gina. Several diminutives are sometimes formed from the 
same primitive ; as, from puer, puerulus, puellus, puellulus ; 
from cista, cistula, cistella, cistellula ; from homo, homuncio, 
horimnculus. Diminutives for the most part end in lus, la, 
lum, and are generally of the same gender with their primi- 
tives. When the signification of the primitive is increased, 
it is called an Amplificative, and ends in o ; as, Capito, -onis, 
having a large head : so, naso, labeo, bucco, having a large 
nose, lips, cheeks. 

6. A substantive derived from a verb is called a 
Verbal noun ; as, amor, love ; doctrlna^ learning ; 
from amo, and doceo. 

Verbal nouns are very numerous, and commonly end in io, or, 
us, and ura ; as, lectio, a lesson; dmator, a lover; luctus, 
grief; creatura, a creature. 

ADJECTIVE. 

An adjective is a word added to a substantive, to express 
its quality ; as, hard, soft. 

We know things by their qualities only. Every quality must belong to some 
subject An adjective, therefore, always implies a substantive expressed or 
understood, and cannot make full sense without it. 

An adjective may be thus distinguished from a substantive : If the word 
thing be joined to an adjective, it will make sense ; but if it be joined to a sub- 
stantive it will make nonsense ; thus we can say, " a good thing;" but we can- 
not say " a book thing." 

Adjectives in English admit of no variation, except that of the degrees of 
comparison. 

LATIN ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives in Latin are varied by gender, number, and case, 
to agree with substantives in all these accidents. 

An adjective properly hath neither genders, numbers, nor cases ; but certain 
terminations answering to the gender, number, and case, of the substantive 
with which it is joined. 

Adjectives are varied like three substantives of the same 
termination and declension. 



ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION. 53 

All adjectives are either of the first and second declension, 
or of the third only. 

Adjectives of three terminations are of the first and second 
declension ; but adjectives of one or two terminations are of 
the third. 

Exc. The following adjectives, though they have three ter- 
minations, are of the third declension. 

Acer, sharp. Celer, swift Pedester, on foot 

Alacer, cheerful. Equester, belonging to a Saluber, wholesome. 

Campester, belonging to a horse. Sylvester, woody. 



Celeber, famous. 



Paluster, marshy. 



Volucer, swift. 



ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSION. 

Adjectives of the first and second declension have their 
masculine in us or er, their feminine always in a, and their 
neuter always in um ; as, bonus, for the masc. bona, for the 
fern, bonum, for the, neut., good ; thus, 

Sing. Plur. 

M. F. 

N. bon-us, 
G. bon-i, 
D. bon-6, 
A. bon-iim, 
V. bon-e, 
A. bono, 



-a, 

-33, 

-am, 

-a, 

-a, 



N. 

-iim, 

•h 

-6, 

-iim, 

-iim, 

-6. 



M. f. 

N. bon-i, -ae, 
G. bon-orum, -arum, 
-is, 
-as, 
-ae, 
-Is, 



-a, 

-orum, 

-Is, 

-a, 

-a, 

-Is. 



Parcus, sparing. 
Quadriraus,/owr years old 
Quotidianus, daily. 
Rancidus, rank, stale- 
Reus, impeached. 
Sagus, knowing. 
Scambus, bow-legged. 
Tacitus, silent. 



D. bon-is, 

A. bon-6s, 

V. bon-i, 

A, bon-is, 
In like manner decline, 
Acid us, sour, tart. Hirsiitus, hirtus, rough. Paetus, pink-eyed 

iEgrotus, sick. Horn us, of this year. 

Balbus, stammering. Idoneus,jfa. 

Bard us, dull, slow. J ejunus, fasting. 

Cadiicus, fading. Inclylus, renowned. 

Cassus, void. J ucimdus, pleasant. 

Daedalus, poet curiously Lascivus, wanton. 

made. ' Lepid us, pretty, witty. 

DTsertus, eloquent Macilentus, lean. 

Ebrius, drunk. Meracus, without mixture. Tempest! vus, seasonable. 

Effbdtu$,past having young. Nimius, too much. Udus, wet. 

Facetus, witty. m Nuntius, bringing news. Uncus, crooked. 

Fatuus, foolish. Obscosnus, obscene, omin- Vagus, wandering. 

Garrulus, prattling. ous. Valgus, bow-legged, <fcc. 

Gibbus, convex. Oblusus, blunt 

Tener, tenera, tenerum, tender. 
Sing. Plur. 

M. F. N. M. f. N. 

N. ten-er, -era, -erum, A T . ten-eri, -era?, -era, 
G. ten-eri, -eras, -eri, G. ten-erorum, -erarum, -erorum, 
D. ten-ero, -erae, -ero, D. ten-eris, 
A. ten-erum, -eram, -erum, A. ten-eros, 
V. ten-er, -era, -erum, V. ten-eri, 
A. ten-ero, -era, -ero. A. ten-eris, 
e 2 



-ens, 


-ens, 


-eras, 


-era, 


-erae, 


-era, 


-eris, 


-erls» 



54 ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

In like manner decline, 

Asper, rough. Gibber, crock-backed. Miser, wretched. 

Ceter, (hardly used) the Lacer, torn. Prosper, prosperous. 

rest. Liber, free. 

Also the compounds of gero and fero ; as, Ica&ger, bearing wool ; opifer, 
bringing help, &c. Likewise satur, satura, saturum, full. But most adjectives 
in er drop the e ; as, ater, atra, atrum, black ; gen. atri, atr<z t atri ; dat. atro, 
atrce, atro, &c. So, 

^Eger, sick. Macer, lean. Sacer, sacred. 

Creber, frequent. Niger, black. Scaber, rough. 

Glaber, smooth. Piger, slow. Teter, ugly. 

Integer, entire. Pulcher, fair. Vafer, crafty. 

Ludicer, ludicrous. Ruber, red. 

Dexter, right, has -tra, -trum, or -tera, -terum. 

All adjectives in us and er decline like bonus and tener. 

Obs. i* The following adjectives have their genitive singu- 
lar in ius, and the dative in i, through all their genders: in 
the other cases like bonus and tener. 

M. F. N. - 

Unus, -a, -um; gen. unius, dat. uni, one. Alter, alterius, one of two, the other. 

Alius, -ius, one of many, another. Neuter, -trius, neither. 

Nullus, nullius, none. Uter, utrius, whether of the two. 

Solus, -ius, alone. Uterque, utri usque, both. 

Totus, -ius, whole. Uterlibet, -triuslibet, ) which of the two 

Ullus, -ius, any. Utervus, -triusvis, } you please. 

Alteruter, the one or the other, alterutrius, alterutri, and sometimes alterius 
utrius, alteri utri, &c. 

These adjectives, except totus, are called Partitives; and seem to resemble, in 
their signification as well as declension, what are called pronominal adjectives. 
In ancient writers we find them declined like bonus. 

Obs. 2. To decline an adjective properly, it should always be joined with a 
substantive in the different genders ; as, bonus liber, a good book ; bona penna, 
a good pen ; bonum sedile, a good seat. But as the adjective in Latin is often 
found without its substantive joined with it, we therefore, in declining bonus, 
commonly say bonus, a good man, understanding vir or homo ; bona, a good 
woman, understanding fccmina ; and bonum, a good thing, understanding we- 
gotium. 

ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

1. Adjectives of one termination; as; felix, for the masc. 
felix, for the fern, felix for the neut. happy ; thus, 
Sing. Plur. 

M. F. N. M. F. N. 

N. felix, -ix, -ix, N. fel-ices, -ices, -icia, 

G. fel-icis, -icis, -icis, G. fel-icium, -icium, -icium, 

D. fel-ici, -Ici, -Ici, Z>. fel-icibus, -icibus, -icibus, 

A. fel-icem, -icem, -ix, A. fel-ices, -ices, -icia, 

V. fel-ix, -ix, -ix, V. fel-ices, -ices, -icia, 

A. fel-ice, or -ici, &c. A. fel-icibus, -icibus, -icibus. 
In like manner decline, 

Atrox, -5cis, cruel. Demens, mad. Pemix,-icis, swift. 

Audax, -acis, & -ens, -tis, Elegans, handsome. Jleccns, fresh. 

bold._ Fallax, deceitful. Salax, -acis, lustful. 

Bflix, -Tcis, woven with a Iners, -tis, sluggish. Uber, -eris, fertile. 

double tread. Mendax, lying. VSrax, devouring, &c. 

Cicur, -iiris, tame. 



ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 



55 



2. Adjectives of two terminations ; as, mitis, for the masc. 
and fem. mite, for the neut. meek ; so, mitior, mitior, mitius, 
meeker; thus, 

Sing. - Plur. 

M. F. N. M. F. N. 

N. mitis, mitis, mite, N. mites, mites, mitia, 

G. mitis, mitis, mitis, G. mitium, mitium, mitium, 

D. miti, miti, miti, D. mitibus, mitibus, mitibus, 

A. mi tern, mitem, mite, A. mites, mites, mitia, 

V. mitis, mitis, mite, V. mites, mites, mitia, 

A. miti, miti, miti. A. mitibus, mitibus, mitibus. 



Agilis, active. 
Biennis, of two years. 
Comis, mild, affable. 
Docilis, teachable. 
Exsanguis, bloodless. 
Grandis, great: 
Hilaris, cheerfid. 

Sing. 



In like manner decline, 

Qualis, of what kind. 
Rudis, raw. 
Sagax, shrewd. 
Talis, such. 



Immanis, huge, cruel. 
Jugis, perpetual. 
Laevis, smooth. 
Mediocris, middling. 
Omnis, all. 
Putris, rotten. 



Utilis, useful. 
Vilis, worthless, &c 



Plur. 



F. N. 

N. miti-or, -or, -us, 
G. miti-oris, -oris, -oris 
D. miti-ori, -ori, -ori, 
A. miti-orem, -orem, -us, 
V. miti-or, -or, -us, 
A. miti-ore, or -ori, &c. 



N. 

-ora, 



iV. miti-ores, 

G. miti-orum, -orum, -orum, 
2>. miti-oribiis, -oribiis, -oribus, 
A. miti-ores, -ores, -ora. 
y. miti-ores, -ores, -ora, 
A. miti-oribus, -oribus, -oribus. 
In this manner all comparatives are declined. 
3. Adjectives of three terminations ; as, deer or acris, for 
the masc; acris for the fem. acre, for the neut. sharp ; thus, 
Sing. Plur. 

M. F. N. M. 

N. a-cer or acris, -acris, -acre,2V. a-cres 
G. a-cris, -cris, -cris, G. a-crium, 

D. a-cri, -cri, -cri, D. a-enbus, 

A. a-crem, -crem, -ere, A. a-cres, 

V. a-cer or acris, -cris, -ere, V. a-cres, 
A. a-cri, -cri, -cri. A. a-cribus, 

In like manner filacer or alacris, celer 
or Celebris, sdluber or salubris, volucer or 
celer retains e before r. 



F. 


N. 


-cres, 


-cria, 


-crium, 


-crium, 


-cribus, 


-cribus, 


-cres, 


-cria, 


-cres, 


-cria, 



-cribus, -cribus. 

or celeris, celeber 

volucris, &c. ; but 



RULES. 

1. Adjectives of the third declension have e or i in the ab- 
lative singular ; but if the neuter be in e, the ablative has i 
only. 

2. The genitive plural ends in turn, and the neuter of the 



56 ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 

nominative, accusative, and vocative, in ia ;, except compara- 
tives, which have um and a. 

EXCEPTIONS. 

Exc. 1. Dives, hospes, sospes, super stes, juvenis, senex, and pauper, have e only 
in the ablative singular, and consequently um in the geni^ve plural. 

Exc. 2. The following have also e, in the abl. sing., and um, not ium, in the 
genit. plur. Compos, -otis, master of, that hath obtained his desire ; impos, -otis, 
unable; inops, -apis, poor; supplex, -ids, suppliant, humble; uher, -eris, fertile; 
consors, -tis, sharing, a partner; degener, -ens, degenerate, or degenerating; 
vigil, watchful ; puber, -eris, of age, marriageable ; and celer. Also compounds 
in ceps, sex, pes, and corpor ; as, pariiceps, partaking of; arttfex, -ids, cunning, 
an artist; bipes, -pedis, two-footed; bicorpor, -oris, two-bodied, &c. All these 
have seldom the neut. sing, and almost never the neut. plur. in the nominative 
and accusative. To which add memor, mindful, which has memori and memo- 
rum : also, deses, reses, hebes, perpes, prcepes, teres, concolor, versicolor, which 
likewise for the most part want the genitive plural. 

Exc. 3. Par, equal, has only pari ; but its compounds have either e or t; as, 
compare, or -ri. Vetus, old, has Vetera, and veterum ; plus, more, which is only 
used in the neut. sing, has plure ; and in the plural, plures, piura, or jrturia, 
plurium % and is thus declined : _ ifc 

Sing. Plur. 

M. F. N. M. F. N. 

N. = — plJ3 s t ^ P^res, plures, plura & pluria, 

G. plures, G. plurium, -um, -ium, 

D. D. pluribus, -ribus, -ribiis, 

A. ; plus, A. plures, -ures, pliira & pluria, 

A. pliire & sometimes pluri. A. pluribus, -ribiis, -ribiis. 

So its compounds, complures, complura & -urid, which has no singular. Plus 
is often a real substantive neuter. 

Exc. 4. Expes, hopeless ; and pods, -e, are only used in the nominative. Potis 
has also sometimes potis in the neuter. 

REMAKES. 

1. Comparatives, and adjectives in ns, have e more frequently than i ; and 
participles in the ablative called absolute have generally e; as, Tiberio regnante, 
not regnanti, in the reign of Tiberius. 

2. Adjectives joined with substantives neuter for the most part have i ; as, 
victrici ferro, not victrice. 

3. Different words are sometimes used to express the different genders ; as, 
victor, victorious, for the masc. victrix, for the fem. Victrix, m the plur. has 
likewise the neuter gender; thus victrices, victricia: so ultor, and ultrix, re- 
vengeful. Victrix is also neuter in the singular. 

4. Several adjectives compounded of clivus, frenum, bacillum, arma, jugum, 
limus, somnus, and animus, end in is or us; and therefore are either of the first 
and second declension, or of the third ; as, declivis, -is, -e ; and declivus, -a, -um, 
steep; imbecillis, and imbecillus, weak; semisomnis, and semisomnus, half asleep; 
exanimis, and exanimus, lifeless. But several of them do not admit of this vari- 
ation ; thus we say, magndnimus^ flexanimus^ effrenus, levisomnvs ; not mag- 
nanimis, &c. On the contrary, we say, pusillanimis, injugis, illimis, insomnis, 
exsomnis; not pusillanimus, <fec. So semianimis, inermis, subltmis, accllvis, de- 
clivis, proctivis ; rarely semianimus, &c. 

5. Adjectives derived from nouns are called Denominatives; as, corddtus, 
mbrdtus, ccelestis, adamantinus, corporeus, agrestis, cestwus, &c. from cor, mos, 
caelum, adamas, &c. Those which diminish the signification of their primitives 
are called Diminutives ; as, misellus, parvulus, duriusculus, &c. Those which 
signify a great deal of a thing are called Amplifcatives, and end in osus, or 
entus; as, vlnosus, vlnolentus, given to much wine; operosus, laborious; plum- 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



57 



bosus, full of lead ; nodosus, knotty, full of knots ; corpulentus, corpulent, &c. 
Some end in tus ; as, auritus, having long or large ears ; nasutus, having a large 
nose ; literatus, learned, &c. 

6. An adjective derived from a substantive or from another adjective, signi- 
fying possession or property, is called a Possessive Adjective ; as, Scoficus, pa- 
ternus, herllis, alienus, of or belonging to Scotland, a father, a master, another : 
from Scotia, pater, kerus, and alius. 

7. Adjectives derived from verbs are called Verbals; as, amabllis, amiable ; 
capax, capable ; docilis, teachable : from amo, capio, doceo. 

8. When participles become adjectives, they are called Participials ; as, 
sapiens, wise ; acutus, sharp ; disertus, eloquent. Of these many also become 
substantives ; as, adolescens, animans, rudens, serpens, advocatus, sponsus, natus, 
legatus ; sponsa, nata, serta, sc. corona, a garland ; pratexta, sc. veslis ; debitum, 
decretum,prceceptum, satum, tectum, votum, &c. 

9. Adjectives derived from adverbs, are called Adverbials; as, hodiernus, 
from hodie; crasUnus, from eras; binus from bis, &c. There are also adjec- 
tives derived from prepositions ; as, contrarius, from contra ; antfeus, from ante ; 
posticus, from post. 

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives which signify number, are divided into four 
classes, Cardinal, Ordinal, Distributive, and Multiplicative. 



1. The Cardinal or Principal numbers are : 



Unus, 1 

Duo, 

Tres, 

Quatuor, 

Quinque, 

Sex, 

Septem, 

Octo, 

Novem, 

Decern, 

Undecim, 

Duodecim, 

Tredecim, 

Quatuordecim, 

Quindecim, 

Sexdecim, 

Septendecim, 

Octodecim,* 

Novemdecim, 

Viginti, 

Viginti unus, or 

Unus & viginti, 

Viginti duo, or 

Duo & viginti, 



one 1 

two 2 

three 3 
four 4 
five 5 

six 6 

seven 7 

eight 8 

nine 9 

ten 10 

eleven 11 

twelve 12 

thirteen 13 
fourteen 14 
fifteen 15 

sixteen 16 

seventeen 17 

eighteen 18 

nineteen 19 

twenty 20 

[ twenty-one 21 
[ twenty-two 22 



Triginta, 

Quadraginta, 

Quinquaginta, 

Sexaginta, 

Septuaginta, 

Octuginta, 

Nonaginta, 

Centum, 

Ducenti, 

Trecenti, 

Quadringenti, 

Quingenti, 

Sexcenti, 

Septingenti, 

Octingenti, 

Nongenti, 

Mille, 

Duo millia, < 

bis mille, 
Decern millia, or i 

decies mille, 
Viginti millia, or } 

VTcies mille, 



thirty 30 
forty 40 
fifty 50 
sixty 60 
seventy 70 
eighty 80 
ninety 90 
a hundred 100 
two hundred 200 
three hundred 300 
four hundred 400 
five hundred 500 
six hundred 600 
seven hundred 700 
eight hundred 800 
nine hundred 900 
a thousand 1000 

two thousand 2000 

ten thousand 10,000 

twenty thousand 
20,000 ^ 



The cardinal numbers, except unus and mille, want the singular. 

Unus is not used in the plural, unless when joined with a substantive which 
wants the singular; as, in unis adibus, in one house, Terent. Eun. ii. 3. 75. Utub 
nuptia. Id. And iv. 1. 51. In una mania convenere, Sallust. Cat. 6. or when 
several particulars are considered as one whole ; as, una vestimenta, one suit of 
clothes, Cic. Flacc. 29. 



* Instead of octodecim, we frequently find the subtractive term duodeviginti, mean- 
ing two from twenty, equal 18. And so duodetriginta,^', undetriginta, 29; undevi 
ginti, 19 ; undequadraginta stands for 39, and so on. 



58 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Duo and tres are thus declined : 



H. 

iV*. duo, 

G. duorum, 

D. duobus, 

A. duos or duo, duas, 

V. duo duae, 



Sing. 

F. N. 

duae, duo, 
duarum, duorum, 
duabus, duobus, 
duo, 
duo, 



A. duobus, duabus, duobus. 



Plur. 

M. F. N. 

N. tres, tres, tria, 
G. trium, trium, trium, 
D. tribus, tribus, tribus, 
A. tres, tres, tria, 
V. tres, tres, tria, 
A. tribus, tribus, tribus, 



In the same manner with duo, decline ambo, both. 

All the cardinal numbers from guatuor to centum, including them both, are 
indeclinable ; and from centum to mille, are declined like the plural of bonus ; 
thus, ducenti, -tee, -ta ; duceniorum, -iarum, -torum, &c. 

Mille is used either as a substantive or adjective ; when taken substantively 
it is indeclinable in the singular number ; and in the plural has mittia, miUium t 
mUlibus, &c* . 

Mille, an adjective, is commonly indeclinable, and to express more than one 
thousand, has the numeral adverbs joined with it; thus, mille homines, a thousand 
men; mille hominum, of a thousand men, &c. Bis mille homines, two thousand 
men ; ter mille homines, &c. But with mille, a substantive, we say, mille homi- 
num, a thousand men ; duo millia hominum, tria millia, quatuor millia, centum, 
or centena millia hominum ; decies centena miUia, a million ; vicies centena millia, 
two millions, &c. 

The Romans also expressed numbers by seven capitals, called Numeral Let- 
ters: as I. one; V. five; X. ten; L. fifty; C. a hundred ; D. five hundred; M. 
a thousand ; which combined are read by the following rules : 

1. A letter of less value put before one of greater, takes its own value from 
the greater ; thus, IV. is four ; IX. nine, &c. : but if it follow, the less adds its 
value to the greater; thus, VI. equals six ; XI. eleven ; LX. sixty, &c. 

2. A numeral letter repeated, repeats its value ; thus, II. signify two ; XX. 
twenty, &c. V. and L. are never repeated : thus, 

I. one XV. fifteen. LXXX. eighty. 

II. two. XVI. sixteen. XC. ninety. 

ITI. three. XVII. seventeen. C. one hundred. 

IV. four. XVIII. eighteen. CC. two hundred. 

V. five. XIX. nineteen. CCC. three hundred. 
VT. six. XX. twenty. 

VII. seven. XXI. twenty-one. 

VIII. eight. XXII. twenty-two. 

IX. nine. XXX. thirty. 

X. fen. XL. forty. 

XI. eleven. L. fifty- 

XII. tv)elve. LX. sixty. 

XIII. thirteen. LXX. seventy. 
XiV. fourteen. 

M. makes one thousand, because it begins mille, 1000. D., the first letter of 
demidium (a half), is five hundred, half 1000. C. marks one hundred, as it 
begins centum, 100. This C was anciently written LL, so its half, L., stands 
for fifty. V. marks five, because the Roman measure of 5 ounces was of that 
shape. X. stands for ten, as it is formed of two Vs, one inverted under the 
other, thus, ^. And I. stands for one, as it is a unit shown by lifting one 
finger, or as it is made by one stroke of the pen. 

2. The Ordinal numbers are, primus, first ; secundus, second, 
<&c. declined like bonus. 



CCCC. four hundred. 

D. five hundred. 

DC. six hundred. 

DCC. sevenhundred. 

DCCC. eight hundred. 
DCCCC. nine hundred. 

M.t one thousand. 

MM. two thousand. 



* Mille has sometimes milli in the abl. singular. 



f See Appendix. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 



59 



3. The distributive are, singuli, one by one; bini> two by 
two, &c. declined like the plural of bonus* 

The following Table contains a list of the Ordinal and Distributive Num- 
bers, together with the Numeral Adverbs, which are often joined with the 
Numeral Adjectives. 

Ordinal. ^Distributive. Numeral Adverbs. 

1 Primus, a, um, first. Singuli, ae, a, one by one. Semel, once. 

2 secundus, second. bini, two by two. bis, twice. 

3 tertius, third. terni, three by three. ter, thrice. 

4 quartus, /o«r$. quaterni, four by four. quater, four times. 

5 quintus, fifth. qmn\,five by five. quinquies, five times. 

6 sextus, sixth. seni, six by six. sexies, six times. 

7 septfmus, seventh. septeni, seven by seven, septies, seven times. 

8 octavus, eighth. octoni, eight by eight. octies, eight times. 

9 nonus, ninth. ncveni, nine by nine. novies, nine times. 

10 decimus, tenth. deni, ten by ten. decies, ten times. 

11 undecimus, eleventh, undeni, eleven by eleven, undecies, eleven times. 

12 duodecimus,&c. duodeni, &c. duodecies, twelve times. 

13 decimus tertius. tredeni, terni deni. tredecies, thirteen times. 

14 decimus quartus. quaterni deni. quatuordecies, fourteen 



15 decimus quintus. 

16 decimus sextus. 

17 decimus septimus. 

18 decimus octavus. 

19 decimus nonus. 



quindeni. 
seni deni. 
septeni deni. 

octoni deni. 

noveni deni. 



20 vlgesimus vicesimus. viceni. 

21 vlgesimus primus. viceni singuli. 
30 trigesimus tricesimus. triceni. 



quadrageni. 

quinquageni. 

sexageni. 

septuageni. 

octogeni. 

nonageni. 

centeni. , 

diiceni. 

trecenteni. 

quater centeni. 

quinquies centeni. 

sexies centeni. 

septies centeni. 

octies centeni. 

novies centeni. 

milleni, 

bis milleni. 

Subtractives sometimes occur in the ordinals; as, duodetricesimus, twenty- 
eighth, instead of vicesimus-octavus ; also duodequadrigesimus, thirty-eighth ; 
undevigesimus for nineteenth ; undetricesimus, twenty-ninth ; undequinquagesi- 
mus, forty-ninth ; undecentesimus, ninety-ninth, &c. the duo and un (for unus,) 
not declined in these words. 

So in the numeral adverbs, undequadragies, thirty-nine times ; duodetricies, 
twenty-eight times, &c. 

4. The multiplicative numbers are, simplex, simple ; du- 
plex, double or two-fold ; triplex, triple or three-fold ; qua- 
druplex, four-fold, &c; all of them declined like felix ; thus, 
simplex, -ids, &c. 



40 quadragesimus. 

50 quinquagesimus. 

60 sexagesimus 

70 septuagesimus. 

80 octogesimus. 

90 nonagesimus. 
100 centisimus. 
200 diicentesimus. 
300 trecentesimus. 
400 quadringentesimus. 
500 quingentesimus. 
600 sexcentesimus. 
700 septingentesimus. 
800 octingentesimus. 
900 nongentesimus. 
1000 millesimus. 
' 2000 bis millesimus. 



quindecies, fifteen times. 
sexdecies, sixteen times. 
decies ac septies, seventeen 

times. 
decies ac octies, eighteen 

times. 
decies et novies, nineteen 

times. 
vicies, twenty times. 
vicies semel. 
tricies, thirty times. 
quadragies. 
quinquagies. 
sexagies. 
septuegies. 
octogies. 
nonagies. 
centies. 
diicenties. 
trecenties. 
quadringenties. 
quingenties. 
sexcenties. 
septingenties. 
octingenties. 
nGningenties. 
millies. 
bis millies. 



60 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

The interrogative words to which the above numerals an- 
swer, are quot, quotus y quoteni, quoties, and quotiiplex. 

Quot, how many ? is indeclinable : So tot, so many ; totu 
dem, just so many ; quotquot quotcunque, how many soever ; 
aliquot, some. 

To these numeral adjectives may be added such as express division, proportion, 
time, weight, &c. as, tiparfitus, tripariitus, fyc. duplus, triplus, fyc. btmus, trtmus, 
fyc. biennis, triennis, tyc. bimestris,trimetris, OfC. bitibris, trilibris, &c. bmarius,ter- 
narius, tyc. which last are applied to the number of any kind of things whatever, 
as, versus senarius, a verse of six feet ; denarius nummus, a coin of ten asses : 
octogenarius senex, an old man eighty years old ; grex centenarius, a flock of a 
hundred, &c. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

The comparison of adjectives expresses the quality in dif- 
ferent degrees ; as, hard, harder, hardest. 

Those adjectives only are compared, whose signification 
admits the distinction of more or less. 

The degrees of comparison are three, the Positive, Com* 
parative, and Superlative. 

The Positive seems improperly to be called a degree. It simply signifies the 
quality ; as, durus, hard ; and serves only as a foundation for the other degrees. 
By it we express the relation of equality ; he is as tall as I. 

The Comparative expresses a greater degree of the quality, and has always 
a reference to a less degree of the same ; as, stronger, wiser. 

The Superlative expresses the quality carried to the greatest degree: as, 
strongest, wisest. 

Comparison of English Adjectives. 

In English the comparative is formed from the positive, by adding to the end 
of the word r or er ; and the superlative by adding st or est ; as, wise, wiser, 
wisest ; cold, colder, coldest. The adverbs more and most put before the adjec- 
tive, have the same effect; as, brave, more brave, most brave. 

Monosyllables for the most part are compared by er and est ; as, fair, fairer, 
fairest ; and Polysyllables by more and most ; as beautiful, more beautifid, most 
beautiful. 

In some few adjectives, the superlative is formed by adding most ; as, under- 
most, uttermost, or utmost, uppermost, nethermost, foremost. 

Comparison of Latin Adjectives. 

The comparative degree is formed from the first case of the 
positive in i , by adding the syllable or, for the masculine and 
feminine, and us for the neuter. The m superlative is formed 
from the same case, by adding ssimus ; as, altus, high, genit. 
aid : comparative, altior, for the masc. ; altior, for the fem. ; 
altius, for the neut. higher : superlative, altissimus, -a, -um, 
highest. So mitis, meek ; dative miti ; mitior, -or, -us, meek- 
er ; mitisstmus, -a, -um, meekest. 

If the positive end in er, the superlative is formed by add- 
ing rimus ; as, pauper, poor ; pauperrvmus, poorest. 

The comparative is always of the third declension : the su- 
perlative of the first and second : as, alius, altior, altissimus / 



COMPARISON OP ADJECTIVES. 61 

ulta, altior, altissima ; altum, altius, altissimum ; gen* alii, 
altioriS) altissimi, &e. 

Irregular and Defective Comparison. 

1. Bonus, melior, optunus, good, better, best. 

Malus, pejor, pessimus, bad, worse, worst. 

Magnus, major, - maximus, great, greater^ greatest. 

Parvus, minor, minimus, small, less, least. * 

Multus, pliirimus, much, more, most. 

Fern. Multa plurima ; neut. multum, plus, plurimum ; plur. multi, plures, pr%- 
rimi ,* multae, plures, plurimae, &c. 

In several of these, both in English and Latin, the comparative and superla- 
tive seem to be formed from some other adjective, which, in the positive, has 
fallen into disuse ,- in others, the regular form is contracted, as, maximus for 
magnissimus ; most for morest ,* least for lessest ; worst for worsest. 

2. These five have their superlative in Umus: 

Facilis, facilior, facillimus, easy, Imbecillis, imbecillior, imbecillimus, 

Gracilis, gracilior, graeillimus, lean. weak. 

Humilis, humilior, humillimus, low. Similis, similior, simillimus, like. 

3. The following adjectives have regular comparatives, but 

form the superlative differently : 

Citer, citerior, citimns, near. Maturus, -ior, MaturrTmus, or maturis- 
Dexter, dexterior, dextimus, right. mus, ripe. 

Sinister, sinisterior, sinistimus, left. Posterus, posterior, postremus, behind. 

Exter, -erior, extimus, or extremus, out- Superus, -rior, supremus, or summus, 

ward. high. 

Jnferus, -ior, inf imus, or imus, below. Vetus, veterior, veterrimus, old. 
Interus, interior, intimus, inward. 

4. Compounds in dicus, loquus, ficus, and volus, have en- 
tior, and entissimus ; as, maledicus, railing; maledicentior, 
maledicentissimus : So magntloquus, one that boasteth ; bene- 
jicus, beneficent ; mdlevolus, malevolent ; mirificus, wonder- 
ful; -entior, -entissimus or mirificissimus. Nequam, indecl. 
worthless, vicious, has nequior, nequissimus. 

There are a great many adjectives, which, though capable 
of having their signification increased ; yet either want one 
of the degrees of comparison, or are not compared at all. 

1. The following adjectives are not used in the positive : 

Deterior, worse, deterrimus. Propior, nearer, proximus, nearest or 

Ocior, swifter, ocissimus. next. 

Prior, former, primus. Ulterior, farther, ultTmus. 

2. The following want the comparative : 

Inclytus, inclytissimus, renowned. Niiperus, nuperrimus, late. 

Meritus, mentissimus, deserving. Par, parissimus, equal. 

Novus, novissimus, new. Sacer, sacerrimus, sacred. 

3. The following want the superlative : 
Adolescens, adolescentior, young. Oplmus, opimior, rich. 
Diuturnus, diuturnior, lasting, PrGnus, pronior, inclined downwards. 
Ingens, ingentior, huge. Satur, saturior, full. 

Jiivenis, junior, young. Senex, senior, old. 

To supply the superlative of juvlnis, or adolescens, we say, minimus natu, the 
youngest; and of senex, maximus natu, the oldest. 

Adjectives in ~dis, dlis, and bUis, also want the superlative ; as, civilis civi- 

F 



62 PRONOUN. 

Uor, civil; regalis, regalior, regal; flebilis, -ior, lamentable. So, juverittis f 
youthful; exdis, small, &c. 

To these add several others of different terminations : Thus, arcaitus, -ior, 
secret ; declivis, -ior, bending downwards ; longinquus, -ior, far off; propinquus, 
-ior, near, m ,-,.■'-. 

Anterior, former ; sequior, worse ; satior, better, are only found in the com- 
parative. 

4. Many adjectives are not compared at all; such are those compounded 
with nouns or verbs ; as, versicolor, of divers colors ; pesfifer poisonous ; also, 
adjectives in us pure, in wus, inus, orus, or imus, and diminutives ; as, dubius, 
doubtful ; vacuus, empty ; fugilivus, that flieth away - f matutmus* early ; cario- 
rus, shrill ; legitimus, lawful ; tenellus, somewhat tender ; majusculus, &c to- 
gether with a great many others of various terminations ; as, almus, gracious ; 
prcecox, -ocis, soon or early ripe ; mirus, egenus, Idcer, memor, sospes, <$c 

This defect of comparison is supplied by putting the ad- 
verb magis before the adjective for the comparative degree ; 
and valde or maxime for the superlative ; thus, egenus, needy; 
magis egenus, more needy ; valde or maxime egenus, very or 
most needy. Which form of comparison is also used in those 
adjectives which are regularly compared. 

Particles frequently vary the import of the degrees of com- 
parison. Thus the adverbs longe, far, and multo, by much, put 
before the comparative or superlative, strengthen the sense; 
as multo severior, much more severe. Paululum, paulo and 
some others, before the comparative, lessen the signification ; 
as, paulo ditior, but a little more rich. Quam, before the su- 
perlative, heightens the sense very much ; and in English is 
equivalent to " as much as possible ;" thus, quam occultissime, 
as secret as possible. For more on these and other like par- 
ticles, see Syntax. 

PRONOUN. 

A Pronoun is a word which stands instead of a Noun* 

Thus /stands for the name of the person who speaks ; thou for the name Of 
tlie person addressed. 

Pronouns serve to point out objects, whose names we either do not know, or 
do not want to mention. They also serve to shorten discourse, and prevent 
the too frequent repetition of the same word ; thus, instead of saying, When 
Ccesar had conquered Gaul, Ccesar turned Ccesafs arms against Caesar' s coim- 
try, we say, When Caesar had conquered Gaul, he turned his arms against his 
country. 

ENGLISH PRONOUNS. 

In English there are five substantive pronouns, 7, thou, he, 
she, and it. 

The first is used when one speaks of himself; as, I love: 
the second, when the person spoken to is the subject of the 
discourse ; as, thou lovest : and the last three, in speaking of 
any other person or thing ; as, he, she, or it falls. 

lis said to be of the first person ; thou, of the second ; and 
he, she, or it, together with all other words, of the third ; and 



SIMPLE LATIN PRONOUNS. 63 

so in the plural number, we, ye, they. Hence these are called 
Personal Pronouns. 

The person speaking, and the person spoken to, do not need the distinction 
of gender; because they are supposed to be present, and therefore their sex is 
commonly known. But the third person, or thing spoken of, being frequently 
absent, and often unknown, requires to be distinguished by different genders ; 
thus, he, she, it. 

Substantive pronouns in English have three cases, the 
nominative, the genitive or possessive, and the objective or ac 
cusative case, which follows the verb active, or the preposi- 
tion. 

Substantive Pronouns, according to their Cases, Numbers, 

and Persons. 

Singular. Plural. 

Persons. Persons. 

Cases. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 

Nom. I, thou, he, she, it ; we, ye or you, they. 

Gen. mine, thine, his, hers, its ,* ours, yours, theirs. 

Ace. me, thee, him, her, it ; us, you, them. 

All other pronouns are adjectives ; as, this, that, our, your, &c. A pronominal 
adjective differs from a common adjective in this, that it does not express 
quality. 

Several adjective pronouns do not admit the article before them, because 
they very much resemble it in their signification ; as, that man, &c. 

From the personal pronouns are formed these pronominal adjectives, my, thy t 
his, her, our, your, their. Mine and thine are often used as adjectives for my 
and thy, when the substantive following them begins with a vowel. 

Some adjective pronouns are varied to mark number ; as, this, these ; thaU 
those. To these add the adjectives other, one, which, when their substantive is 
not expressed, have in the plural, others, ones; as, many others, great ones; in 
which case they seem to be used as substantives. 

Who, which, that, are called Relatives, because they refer to some substantive 
going before, which is therefore called the Antecedent. Who is varied by cases, 
thus, who, whose, whom. His and whose seem to be contractions for him's and 
whom's, the possessive case being formed from the objective; as, hers from her; 
mine from me, fyc. 

Who, which, what, whether, are called Interrogates, when used in asking 
questions; when used otherwise, they are called Indefinites. 

Own and self, in the plural selves, are joined to the possessives, my, our, thy, 
your, his, her, their; as, my or mine own hand, myself, yourselves. Self is like- 
wise joined to the substantive pronoun it, as itself. Himself, themselves, seem 
to be used by corruption for his self, their selves. 

LATIN PRONOUNS. 

The simple pronouns in Latin are eighteen ; ego, tu % sui ; 
ille, ipse, iste, hie, is, quis, qui; meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester, 
nostras, vestras, and cujas* 

Three of them are substantives, ego, tu, sui; the other fif- 
teen are adjectives. 



64 

Sing. 
Norn, ego, /.* 
Gen. mei, of me, 
J)at. mihi, to me, 
Ace. me, me, 

Voc. 

Abl. me, with me. 



Sing. 
N. tu, thou, 
G. tui, of thee, 
D. tibf, to thee, 
A. te, thee, 
V. tu, O thou, 
*A. te, with thee, 



SIMPLE LATIN PRONOUNS. 

Ego, /. 

Plur. 
Nom. no$,we, 

Gen. nostrum, or nostri, ofus 7 
Dat. nobis, to us, 
Ace. nos, us, 

Voc. 

Abl. nobis, with us. 

Tu, thou. 

Plur. 
N. vos, ye or you, or yourselves. 
G. vestrum, or vestri, of you, 
D. vobis, to you, 
A. vos, you, 
V. vos, O ye or 3/ow, 
A. vobis, with you. 



or i/ow 

or 

yourself. 



Sui, of himself, of herself, of itself. 
Sing. Plur. 

N. 



N. — 

G. sui, of himself, of herself of itself , G. sui, of themselves, 

D. sibi, to himself to herself, &c. D. sibi, to themselves, 

A. se, himself, &c. ^4. se, themselves, 

V. V. — 

A. se, with himself , &c. .A. se, with themselves. 

Obs. 1. Ego wants the vocative, because one cannot call upon himself, except 
as a second person ; thus, we cannot say, Q ego, 01; O nos, O we. 

Obs. 2. Mihi in the dative is sometimes by the poets contracted into mt 

Obs. 3. The genitive plural of ego was anciently noslrorum and nostrarum; 
of tu, vestrorum and vestrarum, which were afterwards contracted into nostrum 
and vestrum. 

We commonly used nostrum and vestrum, after partitives, numerals, com- 
paratives, or superlatives ; and nostri and vestri after other words. 

The English substantive pronouns he, she, it, are expressed 
in Latin by these pronominal adjectives, ille, isle, hie, or is ; as, 

Ule, for the masc. ilia, for the fern, illud, for the neut. 
that ; or Ule, he ; ilia, she ; illud, it, or that ; thus, 



N. ille, he, 

G. illius, of him, 

D. 1II1, to him, 

A. ilium, him, 

V. ille, 

A. illo, with him, 



Singular. 

F, 

ilia, she, 

illius, 0/ 7ter, 

Hli, to her, 

illam, Aer, 

ilia, 

ilia, iwtfA Aer, 



illud, it or that, 

illius, of it or that, 

Hli, £0 i£ or tfAatf, 

illud, i£ or fAaf, 

illud, 

illo, with it or that. 



* Ego, means also myself; ©, of myself; 7>. to myself; dec. myself; Ml. with 
myself; Plur. ourselves. 



SIMPLE LATIN PRONOUNS. 



65 



Plural. 



n. mi, 

G. illorum, 

D. illis, 

A. illos, 

F. illi, 

A. illis, 



p. 

illae, 

illarura, 

illis, 

illas, 

illae, 

illis, 



ilia, those, 
illorum, of those* 
illis, to those, 
ilia, those, 
ilia, O those, 
illis, w?i£& Jfose. 



Observe of these Pronouns 2 Hie refers to that nearest the 
speaker ; iste to the next ; and i lie to that farthest off. Is 
generally denotes one absent. 

Also ille implies respect or honor ; iste, contempt ; as, Alex- 
ander ille magnus, Alexander the Great ; Tarquinius iste su- 
perbus, Tarquin the Proud. 

Ipse, he himself; ipsa, she herself; ipsum, itself; and iste, 
ista, istud, that, are declined like ille ; only ipse has ipsum in 
the nom. ace. and voc. sing. neut. 

Ipse is often joined to ego, tu, sui ; and has in Latin the 
same force with self in English, when joined with a possessive 
pronoun ; as, ego ipse, I myself. 

Hie, haec, hoc, this* 
Singular. 



M. 

N. hie, 


F. 

haec, 


N. 

hoc, this, 


G. hujus, 


hujus, 


hujus, of this, 


D. huic, 


huic, 


huic, to this, 


A. hunc, 


hanc, 


hoc, this, 


V. hie, 


haec, 


hoc, this, 


A. hoc, 


hae, 

Plural. 


hoc, with this. 


N. hi, 


hae, 


haec, these, 


G. horum,. 


harum, 


horum, of these, 


D. his, 


his, 


his, to these, 


A. hos, 


has, 


haec, these, 


V. hi, 


hae, 


haec, O fAese, 


A. his, 


his, 


his, with these. 


- Is, 


ea, id ; he, she, it ; 
Singular. 


or £/*af. 


N. is, he, 


ea, she, 


id, that or if, 


G. ejus, of him, 


ejus, of her, 


ejus, of that or if, 


D. ei, to him, 


ei, to her, 


ei, £0 that or if, 


A. eum, him, 


earn, her, 


id, JAatf or it, 


V. — 


1 


_ 


A. eo, with him, 


ea, with her, 
f2 


eo, wif A if or f Aaf . 



66 







SIMPLE LATIN PRONOUNS. 






Plural. 


* 




M. 


F. 


N. 


N. 


", 


eae, 


ea, they, those, 


G. 


eorum, 


earum, 


eorum, of them. 


D. 


iis, or 


eis, &c. 


to them, those, 


A. 


eos, 


eas, 


ea, them, those, 


V. 
A. 








iis, or 


els, &c. 


with them. 



Quis, quw, quod, or quid? which, what? Orquis? who? or 
what man? qua? who? or what woman? quod or quid? what? 
which thing ? or what thing ? thus, 

Sing. Plur. 

M. F. N. M. F. N. 

N. quis, quae, quod or quid, N. qui, qua?, quae, 

G< cujus, cujus, cujus, G. quorum, quarum, quorum, 

D. cui, cui, cui, D. quels or quibus, &c. 

J., quern, quam, quod or quid, A. quos, quas, quae, 

T, ; V. 

A< quo, qua, quo. A. quels or quibus, &c. 

. Qui, qua, quod, who, which, that; Or vir qui, the man 
who or that ; fcemina quce, the woman who or that ; negotium 
quod, the thing which or that ; genit. vir cujus, the man 
tohose, or of whom ; mulier cujus, the woman whose or of 
whom; negotium cujus, the thing of which, seldom whose, &c. 
thus, 

Singular. 

m. F. N. 

JV. qui, quae, quod, w?7io, which, that, 

G< cujus, cujus, cujus, whose, of whom, of which, of that, 

Dc cui, cm, cui, to whom, to which, to that, 

A, quern, quam, quod, whom, which, that, 

F, . 

A< quo, qua, quo, with or from zvhom, which, that. 

Plural. 

M. F. N. 

N* qui, quae, quae, ivho, which, that, 

6r« quorum, quarum, quorum, of whose, of whom, of which, fyc. 

D< quels or quibus, &c. to ivhom, to which, 

At (juos, quas, quae, whom, which, 

A* queis or quibus, &c. with, whom, which* 

The other pronouns are derivatives, coming from ego, tv, 
and sui. Mens, my or mine; tuus, thy or thine; suus, his 



COMPOUND LATIN PRONOUNS, 



67 



own, her own, its own, their own, are declined like bonus, -a, 
-um ; and noster, our ; tester, your, like pulcher, -chra, -cfarum, 
of the first and second declension. 

Nostras, of our country ; vestras, of your country ; cujas, of 
what or which country, are declined like felix, of the third 
declension : gen. nostratis, dat. nostrdti, &c. 

Pronouns as well as nouns, that signify things which cannot 
be addressed or called upon, want the vocative. 

Mens hath mi, and sometimes mens, in the vocative sing, 
masc. 

The relative qui has frequently qui in the ablative, and that, which is remark- 
able, in all genders and numbers. 

Qui is sometimes used for quis: and instead of cujus, the gen. of quis, we find 
an adjective pronoun, cujus, -a, -um. 

Simple pronouns, with respect to their signification, are divided into the fol- 
lowing classes : 

1. Demonstratives, which point out any person or thing present, or as ijf pres- 
ent Ego, tu, hie, iste, and sometimes ille, is, ipse. 

2. Relatives, which refer to something going before : ille, ipse, iste, hie, is, qui, 

3. Possessives, which signify possession : meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester. 

4. Patriots or Gentiles, which signify one's country : nostras, vestras, cujas. 

5. Interrogates, by which we ask a question: quis? cujas? When they do 
not ask a question, they are called Indefinites, like other words of the same 
nature. 

6. Reciprocals, which again call back or represent the same object to the 
mind : sui and suus. 



COMPOUND LATIN PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns are compounded variously : 

1. With other pronouns ; as, isthic, isthcec, isthoc, isthuc, or istuc. Ace. Isthunc, 
isthanc. isthoc, or isthuc. Abl. isthoc, isthac, isthoc. Nom. and ace. plur. neut 
islhac, of iste and hie. So illic, of ille and hie. 

2. With some other parts of speech; as, hujusmodi, cujusmodi, &c. mleurru 
tecum, secum, nobiscum, vobiscum, quocum or quicum and quibuscum : eccum, eo» 
cam ; eccos, eccas, and sometimes ecca, in the nom. sing, of ecce and is. So ellum, 
ofecce and ille. 

3. With some syllable added ; as tute of tu and te, used only in the nom. 
egomet, tutemet, smmet, through all the cases ; thus, meimet, tu'tmet, &c. of ego, 
tu, sui, and met. Instead oftumet in the nom. we say, tutemet: hiccine, hceccine, 
&c. in all the cases that end in c ; of hie and cine : Meapte, tuapte, suapte, nos- 
trapte, vestrapte, in the ablat. fem. and sometimes meopte, tuopte, &c. of meus, 
&c. and pte: hicce, hmcce, hocce : hvjusce, hicce, hisce; of hie and ce; whence 
hujuscemodi, of this sort; ejuscemodi, of that sort; cujuscemodi, of which or what 
sort ; or without ce in the middle, as, istuismodi, of that sort ; cujusmodi, &c. ; 
all genitive monoptotes compounded of modus, a manner, and hie, is, guis, 
and iste. So IDEM, the same, compounded of is and dem, which is thus 
declined : 



Sing. 



Plur. 



M. 


F. 


N. 


M. 


F. 


N. 


JV. idem, 


eadem, 


idem, 


N. ildem, 


eaBdem, 


eadem, 


G. ejusdem, 


ejusdem, 


ejusdem, 


G. eorundem, 


earundem, 


eorundem, 


D. eld em, 


eidem, 


eidem, 


D. eisdem, or 


iisdem, &c. 




A. eundem, 


eandem, 


idem, 


A. eosdem, 


easdem, 


eadem, 


V. idem, 


eadem, 


idem, 


V. iidem, 


eaBdem, 


eadem. 


A. eOdem, 


eadem, 


eOdem. 


A. eisdem, or 


iisdem, &c* 





69 COMPOUND LATIN PRONOUNS. 

Also egomet, I myself made up of ego and the syllabic adjection met, is thua 
declined : 

Sing. Plur. 

N. egomet, J myself, N. nosmet, we ourselves, 

G. meimet, of myself, G. nostrummet vel > f ourat j tta 

D. mihimet, to myself, nostrimet, j ^ ,ww ' 

A. memet, myself, D. nobismet, to ourselves, 

V. wanting. A. nosmet, ourselves, 

4. memet, with myself. V. 

A. nobismet, with ourselves. 

The pronouns which we find most frequently compounded, are quis and qui, 

Quis in composition is sometimes the first, sometimes the last, and some- 
times likewise the middle part of the word compounded ; but qui is always the 
first. . - 

1. The compounds of quis, in which it is put first, are, quisnam, who? quis- 
piam, quisquam, any one ; quisque, every one; quisquis, whosoever; which are 
thus declined : 

Gen. Dat 

N. 

quodnam o?*quidnam; cujusnam, cuinam, 
quodpiam or quidpiara ; cujuspiam, cuipiam, 
quodquam or quidquam ; cujusquam, cuiquam, 
quodque or quidque ; cujusque, cuique, 

quidquid or quicquid; cujuscujus, cuicui. 

And so in the other cases, according to the simple quis. But anisquis has not 
the fern, at all, and the neuter only in the nominative and accusative. Quis- 
quam has also quicquam for quidquam. Accusative quenquam, without the femi- 
nine. The plural is scarcely used. 

Singular. 

M. F. N. 

Nom. quisquis, quidquid or quicquid, 





Nom. 


M. 


P. 


Quisnam, 

Quispiam, 

Quisquam, 

Quisque, 

Quisquis, 


quaenam, 
quaepiam, 
quaequam, 
quaeque, 



Gen. cujuscujus, 

Dat. cuicui, 

Ace. quemquem, quidquid or quicquid, 

Voc. 

Abl. quoquo, quaqua, quoquo. 

And besides quaqua abl. sing, fern., authors use other parts ; as, nom. & ace. 

plur. neut. qumquce ; dat. and abl. plur. quibusqwibus. 

2. The compounds of quis, in which quis is put last, have qua in the nom. 
sing. fem. and in the nominative and accusative plur. neut., as, aliquis, some ; 
ecquis, who ? of et and quis ; also, nequis, siquis, numquis, which for the most 
part are read separately; thus, ne quis, si quis, num quis. They are thus 
declined : 

Nom. Gen. Dat 

M. F. n. 

Aliquis, aliqua, aliquod or aliquid, 

Ecquis, ecqua or ecquae, ecquod or ecquid, 
Si quis, si qua, si quod or si quid, 

Ne quis, ne qua, ne quod or ne quid, 

Num quis, num qua, num quod or num quid, 

3. The compounds which have quis in the middle, are, ecquisnam, who ? 
unusquisque, gen. uniuscujusque, every one. The former is used only in the 
nom. sing, and the latter wants the plural. Thus, 

Singular. 

_ M. p. N. 

N. unusquisque, unaquaeque, uniimquodque, 

G. uniuscujusque, uniuscujusque, uniuscujusque. 

D. unicuique, unicuique, 

And so on like unus and quis; to which add quotusquisque, what one among 

many. 



alicujus, 


alicui, 


eccujus, 


eccui, 


si cujus, 


SI CUl, 


ne cujus, 


ne cui. 


num cujus, 


num cui. 



VERB. 69 

Singular. 
M. F. N. 

N. quotusquisque, quotaquaeque, quotumquodque, vet -umquidque, 

G. quoticuj usque, quotaecuj usque, quotkujusque, 
D. quotocuique, quotaecuique, quotocuique, &c. like quotus and quis. 

4. The compounds of qui are quicumjue, whosoever ; quldam, some ; qytittbet, 
qmvis, any one whom you please j which are thus declined : 

Norn. Gen, Dat 

M. F. . N. 

Quicunque, qusecunque, quodcunque, cujuscunque, cuicnnque, 

Quid am, quaedam, quoddam or quiddam, cujusdam, cuidam, 

Quilibet, quaelibet, quodlibet or quidlibet, cujuslibet, cuilibet, 
Quivis, quaevis, quodvis or quidvis, cujusvis, cuivis. 

Obs. 1. All these compounds have seldom or never queis, but quibus, in their 
dat and abl. plur. ; thus aliqmbus, &c. 

Obs. 2. Quis, and its compounds in comic writers, have sometimes quis in the 
feminine gender. , 

Obs. 3. Quidam has quendam, quandam, quoddam, or quiddam, m the ace. sing. 

and quorundam, quardndam, quorundam, in the gen. plur., n. being put instead 

of m, for the better sound. Also quidam, some, differs in import from aliquis, 

some. Aliquis denotes a person or thing indefinitely ; quidam determines the 

4 person or thing meant. 

Obs. 4. Quod, with its compounds, aliquod, quodvis, quoddam, &c. are used 
when they agree with a substantive in the same case: quid, with its com- 
pounds, aliquid, quidvis, &c. for the most part have either no substantive ex- 
pressed, or govern one in the genitive. . For this reason, they are by some 
reckoned substantives. 

VERB. 

A verb is a word which expresses what is affirmed of 
things ; as, The boy reads* The sun shines. The man loves* 

Or, A verb is that part of speech which signifies to be, to 
do, or to suffer. 

It is called Verb or Word , by way of eminence, because it is the most essen- 
tial word in a sentence, without which the other parts of speech can form 
no complete sense. Thus, the diligent boy reads his lesson with care, is a per- 
fect sentence ; but if we take away the affirmation, or the word reads, it is 
rendered imperfect, or rather becomes no sentence at all ; thus, the diligent boy 
his lesson with care. 

A verb therefore may be thus distinguished from any other part of speech : 
Whatever word expresses an affirmation, or assertion, is a verb; or thus, What- 
jever word, with a substantive noun or pronoun before or after it, makes full 
sense, is a verb ; as, stones fall, I walk, walk thou. Here fall and walk are 
verbs, because they contain an affirmation ; but when we say, a long walk, a 
dangerous fall, there is no affirmation expressed; and the same words walk 
and fall become substantives or nouns. We often find likewise in Latin the 
same word used as a verb, and also as some other part of speech j thus, amor, 
•oris, love, a substantive ; and amor, I am loved, a verb. 

Verbs, with respect to their signification, are divided into 
three different classes, Active, Passive, and Neuter ; because 
we consider things either as acting, or being acted upon ; or 
as neither acting, nor being acted upon ; but simply existing, 
or existing in a certain state or condition ; as in a state of 
motion or rest, dec. 

1. An Active verb expresses an action, and necessarily 
supposes an agent, and an object acted upon ; as, aware, to love \ 
amo te, I love thee. 



70 VERBS. 

2. A verb Passive expresses a passion or suffering, or the 
receiving of an action; and necessarily implies an object 
acted upon, and an agent, by which it is acted upon ; as, ama- 
ri, to be loved ; tu amaris a me, thou art loved by me. < 

3. A Neuter verb properly expresses neither action nor 
passion, but simply the being, state, or condition of things ; 
as, dormio, I sleep ; sedeo, I sit. . 

The verb Active is also called Transitive, when the action 
passeth over to the object, or hath an effect on some other 
thing ; as, scribo literas, I write letters ; but when the action 
is confined within the agent, and passeth not over to an object, 
it is called Intransitive; as, ambulo, I walk; curro, I run, 
which are likewise called Neuter verbs. Many verbs in Latin 
and English are used both in a transitive and in an intransi- 
tive or neuter sense ; as, sistere, to stop ; incipere, to begin ; 
durare, to endure, or to harden, &c. 

Verbs which simply signify being, are likewise called Sub- 
stantive verbs ; as esse or existere, to be or to exist. The no- 
tion of existence is implied in the signification of every verb ; 
thus, i" love, may be resolved into I am loving. 

When the meaning of a verb is expressed without any affirm- 
ation, or in such a form as to bo joined to a substantive noun, 
partaking thereby of the nature of an adjective, it is called a 
Participle; as, amans, loving ; amatus, loved. But when it 
has the form of a substantive, it is called a Gerund, or a Su- 
pine ; as, amandum, loving ; amatum, to love ; amatu^ to love, 
or to be loved. 

A verb is varied or declined by Voices, Modes, 
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons. 

There are two voices ; the Active and Passive. 

The modes are four; Indicative, Subjunctive, 
Imperative, and Infinitive. 

The tenses are five ; the Present, the Preter-im- 
perfect, the Preter-perfect, the Preter-pluperfect, 
and the Future. 

The numbers are two ; Singular and Plural. 

The persons are three ; First, Second, Third. 

1. Voice expresses the different circumstances in which we consider an ob- 
ject, whether as acting or being acted upon. The Active Voice signifies action ; 
as, amo i I love; the Passive, suffering, or being the object of an action; as, 
amor, I am loved. 

2. Modes or moods are the various manners of expressing the signification of 
the verb. 

The Indicative declares or affirms positively ; as, amo, I love ; amabo, I shall 
love ; or asks a question ; as, an tu, amas ? dost thou love ? 



ENGLISH VERBS. 

The Subjunctive is usually joined to some other verbs, and cannot make a 
full meaning by itself; as, si me obsecret redlbo, if he entreat me, I will re- 
turn. Ter. 

The Imperative commands, exhorts, or entreats ; as, ama, love thou. 

The Infinitive simply expresses the signification of the verb, without limiting 
it to any person or number ; as, amdre, to love. 

3. Tenses or Times express the time when any thing is supposed to be, to 
act, or to suffer. 

Time in general is divided into three parts, the present, past, and future. 

Past time is expressed three different ways. When we speak of a thing, 
which was doing, but not finished, at some former time, we use the Preter-imr 
perfect, or past tome not completed ; as, scribebam, I was writing. 

When we speak of a thing now finished, we use the Preter-perfect, or past 
time completed ; as, scripsi, I wrote, or have written. 

When we speak of a thing finished at or before some past time, we use the 
Preier -pluperfect, or past time more than completed ; as, scripseram, I had 
written. 

Future time is expressed two different ways. A thing may be considered 
either as simply about to be done, or as actually finished, at some future time ; 
as, scribam, I shall write, or I shall [then] be writing ; scripsero, I shall have 
written. • 

4. Numbezjaarks how many we suppose to be, to act, or to suffer. 

5. PersoMiows to what the meaning of the verb is applied, whether to the 
person speaking, to the person addressed, or to some other person or thing. 

Obs. The first person speaks; the second person is spoken to ; and the third 
person is spoken of; thus, 

Ego is the first person singular. 

Tu is the second. 

Pie is the third person singular, and all other nouns of the singular are the 
third person. 

Nos is the first person plural. 

Vos the second, 

Ille is the third person plural ; and so are all other nouns and pronouns of 
the plural number. 

But all nouns in the vocative, and all addressed, are of the second person. 

Verbs have two numbers and three persons, to agree with substantive nouns 
and pronouns in these respects .for a verb, properly, hath neither numbers nor 
persons, but certain terminations answering in the person and number of its 
nominative. 

A verb is properly said to be conjugated, when all its parts are properly 
classed, or, as it were, yoked together, according to Voice, Mode, Tense, Num- 
ber, and Person. 7 

ENGLISH VERBS. 

English verbs change their termination to express only the present and the 
past time of the Active voice ; and in regular verbs, the perfect participle is 
always the same with the perfect or past time, both of them ending in ed or 'd. 
The present participle always ends in ing. The English has no future parti- 
ciple, which defect is supplied by a circumlocution ; as, about to love* 

An English verb is thus varied : 
To LOVE. 

" ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present Time. ' Past Time. 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

g 1. I love, We love, 1. I loved, We loved, 

C 2. Thou lovest, Ye or you love, 2. Thou lovedst, Ye or vou loved, 

c£ 3. He loveth or loves; They love. 3. He loved ; They loved. 



LISH VERBS. 



Imperative Mode. 
Sing. Plur. 

2. Love thou ; Love ye or love you. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Present. To love. 



Subjunctive Mode. 

Present Time. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I love, We love, 

2. Thou love, Ye or you love, 

3. He love; They love. 

Participle Present, Loving ; Perfect, Loved. 
The several remaining parts of the English verb are formed by the assist- 
ance of other verbs, called therefore Auxiliaries or Helpers* The chief of these 
are have, be, shall, and will, which are thus varied. 

To HAVE. 
Indicative Mode. 



Present Time. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I have, We have, 

2. Thou hast, Ye have, 

3. He hath or has ; They have. 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Present. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I have, We have, 

2. Thou have, Ye have, 

3. He have; They have. 



Past Time. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. I had, We had, 

2. Thou hadst, Ye had, 

3. He had; They had. 

Imperative Mode. 
Sing. Plur. 

2. Have thou; Havete. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Present, To have. 



Participle Present, Having; Perfect, Had. 





To BE. 


Indicative Mode. 


Present Time. 


Past Time. 


Sing. Plur. 


Sing. Plur. 


1. I am, We are, 


1. I was, We were, 


2. Thou art, Ye are, 


2. Thou wast, Ye were, 


3. He is ; They are. 


3. He was ; They were. 


Subjunctive Mode. 


Present 


Past 


Sing. Plur. 


Sing. Plur. 


1. I be, We be, 


1. I were, We were, 


2. Thou be, Ye be, 


2. Thou wert, Ye were, 


3. Hebe; They be. 


3. He were ; They were. 


Imperative Mode. 


Infinitive Mode. 


Sing. Plur. 


Present, To be. 


2. Be thou ; Be ye. 






Participle. 


Present, Being. 


Perfect, Been, 



SHALL. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I shall, We shall, 

2. Thou shalt, Ye shall, 

3. He shall; They shall. 



WILL. 

Sing. Plur. 

1. I will, We will, 

2. Thou wilt, Ye will, 

3. He will ; They will. 



The terminations of these auxiliary verbs seem to be irregular. Most of 
them, however, are only contractions of the regular form. Thus, hast is con- 
tracted for havest ; hath for huveth ; has for haves ; and wilt for wiliest ; which 
last is likewise used from the irregular verb, to will ; thus, I will, thou wiliest, 
he willeth or wills. 

The tenses of the subjunctive mode are expressed by may or can ; might, 
could, would, and shotdd, together with other auxiliary verbs. 

Would, wouldst, comes from will ; and should, shouldst, from shall. Might 
and could seem to be the past time of may and can. 

To express with greater force the present and past time of the Indicative 
Mode, we use the auxiliary verb do; as, I do love ; I did love. And so in the 



ntREGTTLAR ENGLISH VERBS. 

Imperative, do (hou love, do ye love. In the third person of the Imperative we 
always use let, which being an active verb has always an accusative after it; 
as, let him love ; let them love. 

When we speak of present time indeterminately, we use the simple form ; 
as, Hove, I loved; but when we speak of it with some particular limitation, we 
use an auxiliary; as, lam loving just now ; I uxzs (then) loving. The termina- 
tion th, in the third person of the present of the Indicative, properly belongs to 
solemn discourse ; as, he hath, he doth, &c. 

The whole of the passive voice in English is formed by the auxiliary verb to 
he, and the participle imperfect ; as, lam loved, I was loved, &c. In many verbs 
the present participle also is used in a passive sense ; as, These things are doing, 
were doing, fyc. The house is building, was building, tyc. 

When an auxiliary is joined to a verb, the auxiliary is varied according to 
number and person, and the verb itself always continues the same. When 
there are two or more auxiliaries joined to the verb, the first of them only is 
varied according to person and number. The auxiliary must admits of no va- 
riation. 

Shall and will are always employed to express future time. Will, in the 
first person singular and plural, promises or threatens; in the second and third 
person, only foretells ; shall, on the contrary, in the first person, simply foretells ; 
in the second and third persons, promises, commands, or threatens. But the 
contrary of this holds, when we ask a question; thus, "I shall go," "you will 
go,'' express event only ; but " will you go ?" imports intention ; and " shall I 
go ;" refers to the will of another. 

The neuter verb is varied like the active ; but sometimes it assumes the 
passive form; as, I had fallen, or 1 was fallen. 

IRREGULAR ENGLISH VERBS. 

The English language abounds in irregular verbs. 
A verb in English is said to be irregular, which has not the 
Past Time and the Participle Perfect in eel. 

Most English verbs are liable to some irregularity from contraction. 

To this we are led by the nature of the language, and the manner of pro- 
nouncing it. Thus, instead of loved, lovedest, we say, lov'd, lovedst. Hence, in 
many verbs, ed is changed into t ; as, snacht, checkt, snapt, mixt, dwelt, past, 
meant, felt, left, bereft, fyc. for snatched, checked, &c. In such words, however, 
the entire form is also used, and in general to be preferred. They are not, there- 
fore, commonly ranked among irregular verbs. 

Irregular verbs in English, properly so called, are all monosyllables, unless 
compounded, and may be reduced to the three following classes", in which those 
marked thus * are likewise used in the regular form. 

1. Irregulars by contraction. 

These commonly end in d or t, and have the Present, the Past Time, and the 
Participle Perfect, all alike, without any variation ; as, beat, burst, cast, cost, cut, 
hit, hurt, knit, left, lift* light,* put, quit,* read, rent, rid, set, shed, shred, shut, 
slit, split, spread, thrust, wet ;* all of which are contracted for beated, bursted, 
casted, tyc. 

The following in the Past Time, and Participle Perfect, vary a little from 
the Present ; as, lead, led ; sweat, sv)et ;* ineet, met ; breed, bred ; feed, fed ; 
speed, sped ; bend, bent,-* lend, lent; rend, rent; send, sent; spend, spent, build, 
built ;* geld, gelt ;* gild, gilt ;* gird, girt ;* lose, lost. 

Sold, told, had, made, fled, shod,, clad ;* from sell, tell, have, make, flee, shoe, 
clothe, are contracted for selled, telled, $c. Stand has stood ; smell, smelt ; dare, 
-durst, in the participle dared. 

2. Irregulars in ght. 
These are few in number, and have the Past Time and Participle in ght ; as, 
bring, brought ; buy, bought ; catch, caught ; fight, fought ; teach, taught ; think, 
thought ; seek, sought ; work, wrought. 

G 










IRREGULAR ENGLISH VERBS. 



3. Irregulars in en. 

This is by far the most numerous class of irregular verbs. They have conv 
monly the Participle Perfect in en, and form the Past Time by changing the 
vowel or diphthong of the Present. Some form the Past Time regularly. 



Present 

Fall, 

Awake, 

Forsake, 

Shake, 

Take, 

Draw, 

Slay, 

Get, 

Help, 

Melt, 

Swell, 

Eat, 

Bear, 

Break, 

Cleave, 



Swear, 

Tear, 

Wear, 

Heave, 

Shear, 

Steal, 

Tread, 

Weave, 

Creep, 

Freeze, 

Seethe, 

See, 

Bite, 

Chide, 

Hide, 

Slide, 

Abide, 

Climb, 

Drive, 

Ride, 

Rise, 

Shine, 

Strive, 

Smite, 



Past 
fell, 

awoke,* 
forsook, 
shook, 
took, 
drew, 
slew, 
gat or got, 
(helped) 
melted, 
swelled, 
ate, 

bare or bore, 
brake or broke, 
clave or clove,* 
spake or spoke, 
sware or swore, 
tare or tore, 
ware or wore, 
hove,* 
shore, 
stole, 
trod, 
wove, 
crope,* 
froze, 
sod, 
saw, 
bit, 
chid, 
hid, 
slid, 
abode, 
clomb, 
drove, 
rode, 
rose, 
shone,* 
strove,* 
smote, 



Participle. 

fallen. 

(awaked.) 

forsaken. 

shaken. 

taken. 

drawn. 

slain. 

gotten. 

nolpen.* 

molten.* 

swollen.* 

eaten. 

borne. 

broken. 

cloven. 

spoken. 

sworn. 

torn. 

worn. 

hoven.* 

shorn. 

stolen. 

trodden. 

woven. 

crept.* 

frozen. 

sodden. 

seen. 

bitten. 

chidden. 

hidden. 

slidden. 

abode. 

(climbed) 

driven. 

ridden. 

risen. 

shined. 

striven.* 

smitten. 



Present 

Stride, 

Shrive, 

Thrive, 

Write, 



Past 
strode, 
shrove, 
throve, 
wrote, 



participle; as, 

Participle, 
begun, 
clung, 
drunk or 

drunken, 
flung, 
rung. 



Present 

Begin, 

Cling, 

Drink, 

Fling, 

Ring, 

Shrink, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sling, 

Slink, 

Spin, 



Past 
began, 
clang or clung, 

drank, 

flung, 

rang or rung, 
shrank or shrunk, shrunk, 

sang or sung, sung, 

sank or sunk, sunk, 

slang or slung, slung, 

slunk, slunk, 

span or spun, spun. 



Strike, 


struck, 


Bid, 


bade, 


Give, 


gave, 


Sit, 


sat, 


Spit, 


spat, 


Dig, 


dug,* 


Lie, 


lay, 


Choose, 


chose, 


Hold, 


held, 


Do, 


did, 


Blow, 


blew, 


Crow, 


crew, 


Grow, 


grew, 
knew, 


Know, 


Throw, 


threw, 


Fly, 


flew, 


Bake, 


(baked,) 


Grave, 


(graved,) 


Hew, 


(hewed,) 


Lade, 


(laded,) 


Load, 


(loaded,) 


Mow, 


(mowed,) 


Rive, 


(rived,) 


Saw, 


(sawed,) 


Shave, 


(shaved,) 


Shew, 


(shewed,) 


Show, 


(showed,) 


Sow, 


(sowed,) 


Straw,strew d & 
or strow, p" "^^^ 


Wash, 


(washed,) 


Wax, 


(waxed,) 


Wreath, 


(wreathed,) 


Writhe, 


(writhed,) 


dropt the termination 


Present 


Past 


Spring, 


sprang or sprung, 


Sting, 


stung, 


Stink, 


stank or stunk, 


. String, 


strung, 


Swim, 


swam or swum, 


Swing, 


swung, 


Wring, 


wrung, 


Bind, 


bound, 


Find, 


found, 



Ground, ground, 
Wound, wound, 



Participle. 
stridden, 
shriven, 
thriven, 
written, 
stricken or 
strucken 
bidden, 
given, 
sitten. 
spitten. 
digged, 
lain or lien, 
chosen, 
holden. 
done, 
blown, 
(crown.) 
grown, 
known, 
thrown, 
flown, 
baken.* 
graven.* 
hewen or 
hewn- 
laden, 
loaden.* 
mown, 
riven, 
sawn.* 
shaven.* 
shewn.* 
shown, 
sown.* 

strown.* 

washen.* 
waxen.* 
wreathen. 
writhen. 

en in the 



Participle. 

sprung. 

stung. 

stunk. 

strung. 

swum. 

swung. 

wrung. 

bound or 

bounden. 
found, 
ground, 
wound. 



Present Past. Participle. 

Hang, hung,* hung.* 

Shoot, shot, shot. 

Stick, stuck, stuck. 



LATIN VERBS. 75 

Present Past Participle. 

Come, came, come. 

Run, ran, run.. 

Win, won, won. 

Frequent mistakes are committed with regard to those verbs which make 
the Participle Perfect different from the Past Time ; thus it is said, he begun for 
he began; he run for he ran ; the Participle being used instead of the Past Time ; 
and much more frequently the Past Time instead of the Participle ; as, I had 
wrote, for I had written ; it was wrote, for it was written ; so, bore for borne; chose 
for chosen ; bid for bidden ; drove for driven ; brake for broken ; rode for ridden ; 
Sec. 

Several verbs are either defective, or made up of parts derived from different 
rerbs of the same signification ; as, go, went, gone ; weet, wit or wot, wot ; wis, 
wist; ought, quoth, must, together with most of the auxiliary verbs. 

LATIN VERBS. 

The Latins have four different ways of varying verbs, 
called the First, the Second, the Third, and the Fourth Con- 
jugation* 

The Conjugations are thus distinguished : 

The First has d long before re of the Infinitive ; the Second 
has € long, the Third has e short, and the Fourth has * long, 
before re of the Infinitive. 

Except dare, to give, which has & short, and also its compounds; thus, Cir- 
cundare, to surround j circunddmus, -ddtis, -dabam, -dabo, &c. 

The different conjugations are likewise distinguished from 
one another by the different terminations of the following 
tenses : 











ACTIVE VOICE. 














Indicative Mode. 














Present Tense. 










Singular. 

Persons. 

1. 2. 


3. 


1. 


Plural. 

Persons. 
2. 


3. 


f J • 


P 


•eo, 

-0, 


•as, 
-es, 
•is, 


•at; 
-et; 
•it; 


-amus, 
-emus, 
-Tmus, 


-atis, 
-etis, 
-itis, 


•ant. 
-ent. 
-unt. 


6 


u 


-io, 


-is, 


•it; 


•imus, 


•itis, 


•iunt 



Imperfect. 

1. -abam, -abas, -abat; -abamus, -abatis, -abant. 

2. -ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 

3. -ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 
+• •iebam, -iebas, -iebat; •iebamus, -iebatis, -iebant. 



76 






LATIN VERBS. 














Future. 






1. 


-abo, 


-abis, 


-abit ; 


; -abimus, 


-abitis, 


-abunt 


2. 


-ebo, 


" -ebis, 


-ebit j 


; -ebimus, 


-ebitis, 


-ebunt 


3. 


-am, 


-es, 


-et; 


-emus, 


-etis, 


-ent. 


4, 


•iam, 


-ies, 


-iet; 


-iemus, 


-ietis, 


-ient. 








Subjunctive Mode. 










Present Tense. 






h 


•em, 


-es, 


-et; 


-emus, 


-etis, 


-ent. 


2* 


-earn, 


-eas, 


-eat; 


-eamus, 


-eatis, 


-eant. 


3, 


-am, 


-as, 


-at; 


-amus, 


-atis, 


-ant. 


4, 


-iam, 


-ias, 


-iat; 


-iamus, 
Imperfect. 


-iatis, 


-iant. 


1. 


-arem. 


-ares, 


-aret ; 


-aremus, 


-aretis, 


-areni 


2. 


-erem. 


-eres, 


-eret ; 


-eremus, 


-eretis, 


-erent 


3. 


-erem. 


, -eres, 


-eret ; 


-eremus, 


-eretis, 


-erent. 


4. 


-Irem, 


-ires, 


-iret ; 


-iremus, 


-iretis, 


-irent. 








Imperative Mode, 








2. 




3. 


2. 




3. 


1. 


-a or 


-ato, 


-ato ; 


-ate or • 


■atote* 


-anto. 


2. 


-e or 


-eto, 


-eto ; 


-ete or > 


■etote, 


-ento. 


3. 


-e or 


-ltO, 


-lto ; 


-ite or • 


atote, 


-unto. 


4. 


•i or 


-ito, 


-lto; 


-ite or ■ 


Itote, 


-iunto. 



1. -or, 

2. -eor, 

3. -or, 

4. -ior, 



1. -abar, 

2. -ebar, 

3. -ebar, 

4. -iebar, 



1. -abor, 

2. -ebor, 

3. -ar, 

4. -iar, 



1. -er, 

2. -ear, 

3. -ar, 

4. -iar, 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

-aris or -are, -atur; -amur, 

-eris or -ere, -etur; -emur, 

-eris or -ere, -ltur ; -lmur, 

-iris or -Ire, -3tur; -imur, 

Imperfect. 

-abaris or -abare, -abatur; -abamur, 

-ebaris or -ebare, -ebatur; -ebamur, 

-ebaris or -ebare, -ebatur; -ebamur, 

-iebaris or -iebare, -iebatur; -iebamur, 

' Future. 

-aberis or -abere, -abi tur ; -abimur, 

-eberis or -ebere, -ebitur ; -ebimur, 

-eris or -ere, -etur ; -emur, 

-ieris or -iere, -ietur; -iemur, 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Present Tense. 



-amini, -antur. 

-emini, -entur. 

-imini, -untur. 

-imini, -iuntur. 



-abamini, -abantur. 

-ebamini, -ebantur. 

-ebamini, -ebantur. 

-iebamini, -iebantur. 



-abimini, -abuntur. 

-ebimini, -ebuntur. 

-emini, -entur. 

-iemini, . -ientur. 



-eris or -6re, -etur; -emur, 

-earis or -eare, *eatur; -eamur, 

-aris or -are, -atur; -amur, 

-iaris or -iare, viator; 4amur, 



«emini, -entur. 

-eamini, -eantur 

-amini, -antur. 

-iamjni, 4antujp, 



1. -arer, -areris or -arere, 

8. -erer, -ereris or -erere, 

3. -erer, -ereris or -erere, 

4. -Irer, -Ireris or -Irere, 



-arentur. 
•erentur. 
-erentur. 
•lreotur. 



LATIN VERBS. 

Imperfect. 

-aretur ; -aremur -aremlni, 

-eretur ; -eremur, -eremini, 

-eretur ; -eremur, -eremini, 

-iretur,- -Irernor, -lremini, 

Imperative Mode* 

3. 2. 3. 

-ator ; -amini, -antor. 

-etor ; -emini, -entor. 

-itor ; -imini, -^untor. 

-Itor ; -imini, -iuntor. 



77 



2. 

1. -are or -ator, 

2. -ere or -etor, 

3. -ere or -itor, 

4. -Ire or -itor, 

Obs. Verbs in io of the third conjugation have iunt in the third person pint, 
of the present indie, active, and iuntur in the passive ; and so in the impera- 
tive, iunto and iuntor. In the imperfect and future of the indicative they have 
always the terminations of the fourth conjugation, ielam and iam ; iebar and 
iar, tyc. 

The terminations of the other tenses are the same through 
all the conjugations. Thus, 





ACTIVE VOICE. 


Sing. 
1. 2. 
Perf* -i, -isti, 
Plu* -eram, -eras, 


Indicative Mode. 

Plur* 
3. 1. 2. 3. 

-it; -Tmus, -istis -erunt or -ere. 
-erat; -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 



Subjunctive Mode* 



Perf* -erim, -eris, -erit; -erimus, 
Plu* -issem, -isses, -isset; -issemus, 
Fut* -ero, -eris, -erit; -erimus, 



entis, -erint. 
issetis, -issent. 
eritis, -erint. 

These Tenses, in the Passive Voice, are formed by the 
Participle Perfect, and the auxiliary verb sum, which is also 
used to express the Future of the infinitive Active. 



SUM is an irregular verb, and thu3 conjugated ; 
Principal Parts. 
Perf* Indie* Pres* Infin* 
fui, 



Pres* Indie* 
Sum, 



esse, 
Indicative Mode* 
Present Tense, anu 
Sing. cl. Ego sum, Iam* 



To be, 



g 2. Tu es, # 
£ 3. Ille est, 



Thou art, or you are. 
He is* 



• Where t follows #, Sum signifies also to eat ; as, tu is, thou eatest, iu. 
g2 



78 


LATIN 


VERBS. 


Plur. 


1. Nos sumus, 


We are. 




2. Vos estis, 


Ye or you are. , 




3. Illi sunt, 


They are. 




Imperfect, tvas. 


Sing. 


I. Ego eram, 


I was. 




2. Tu eras, 


Thou wast or you were> 




3. Hie erat, 


He was. 


Plur. 


1. Nos eramus, 


We were. 




2. Vos eratis, 


Ye were. 




3. Illi erant, 


They were. 




Perfect, have been or was. 


Sing. 


1. Ego fui, 


I have been. 




2. Tu fuisti, 


Thou hast been. 




3. Ille fuit; 


He hath been. 


PLUR. 


1. Nos fuimus, 


We have been. 




2. Vos fuistis, 


Ye have been. 




3. Illi fuerunt or -ere, 


They have been. 




Pluperfect. 


had been. 


Sing. 


1. Ego fueram, 


I had been. 




2. Tu fueras, 


Thou hadst been. 




3. Ille fuerat, 


He had been. 


Plur. 


1. Nos fueramus, 


We had been. 




2. Vos fueratis, 


Ye had been. 




3. Illi fuerant, 


They had been* 




Future, shall or will. 


Sing. 


1. Ego ero, 


I shall be. 




2. Tu eris, 


Thou shalt be. 




3. Ille erit, 


He shall be. 


PlURt 


1. Nos erimus, 


We shall be. 




2. Vos eritis, 


Ye shall be. 




3. Illi erunt, 


They shall be. 



Subjunctive Mode. 

Present Tense, may, or can, or let. 

Sing. 1. Ego sim, I may be. 

2. Tu sis, Thou mayest be* 

3. Ille sit, He may be. 
Plur. 1. Nos simus, We may be. 

2. Vos sitis, Ye may be. 

3. Illi sint, They may he. 



LATIN VERBS. 79 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should* 
SlNG. 1. Ego essem, I might be. 

2. Tu esses, Thou mightest be. 

3. Ille esset, He might be. 
Plur. 1. Nos essemus, We might be. 

2. Vos essetis, Ye might be. 

3. Illi essent, They might be. 

Perfect, may have. 

Sing. 1. Ego fuerim, I may ham been. 

2. Tu: fueris, Thou mayest have been. 

3. Ille fuerit, He may have been. 
Plur. 1. Nos fuerimus, We may have been. 

2. Vos fueritis, Ye may have been. 

3. Illi fuerint, They may have been. 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have ; or had. 
Sing. 1. Ego fuissem, I might have been. 

2. Tu fuisses, Thou mightest have been. 

3. Ille fuisse t, He might have been. 
Plur. 1. Nos fuissemus, We might have been. 

2. Vos fuissetis, Ye might have been. 

3. Illi fuissent, They might have been. 

Future, shall have. 
Sing. 1. Ego fuero, I shall have been. 

2. Tu fueris, Thou shalt have been. 

3. Ille fuerit, He shall have been. 
Plur. 1. Nos fuerimus, We shall have been. 

2. Vos fueritis, Ye shall have been. 

3. Illi fuerint, They shall have been. 

Imperative Mode. 
Sing. 2. Es vel esto tu, Be thou. 

3. Esto ille, Let him be. 

Plur. 2. Este vel estote vos, Be ye. 

3. Sunto illi, Let them be. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Pres. Esse, To be. 

Perf. Fuisse, To have been. 

Fut. Esse futurus, -a, -um, To be about to be. 

Fuisse futurus, -a, -um, To have been about to he. 

Participle. 

Fut. Futurus, -a, -um, About to be. 

Obs. 1. The personal pronouns, which in English are, for the most part 
added to the verb, in Latin are commonly understood f because the several 



80 FIKST CONJUGATION. 

persons are sufficiently distinguished from one another by the different termi- 
nations of the verb, though the persons themselves be not expressed. Thus sum 
signifies I am, the ego being understood ; amo, I love, &c. The learner, how- 
ever, at first, ought to be accustomed to join them to the verb; as follows : 
- Sing. Plur. 

g I. Ego sum, lam, 1. Nos sumus, We are, 

E 2. Tu es, Thou art or you are, % Vos estis, Ye or you are, 
£ 3. Ille est, He is. 3. Illi sunt, They are. 

So ego amo, I love ; tu amas, thou lovest or you love ; ille amat, he loveth or 
loves ; nos amamus, we love, &c. 

Obs. 2. In the second person singular, in English, we commonly use the 
plural form, except in solemn discourse ; as, tu es, thou art, or much qfiener, you 
are ; tueras, thou wast or you were ; tu sis, thou mayest be or you may be, &c 
So tu amas, thou lovest or you love; tu amabas, thou lovedst or you loved, &c 

Verbs are thus varied in the different Conjugations. 
FIRST CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Principal Parts. 

Present Indie. Perfect. Supine. Present Infin. 
Amo, amavi, amatum, amare, To love. 

Indicative Mode. 
Present Tense, love, do love, or am loving. 
Sing. 1. Ego am-o, / love, 



2. Tu am-as, 


Thou lovest or you love, 


3. Ille am-at, 


He loveth or he loves. 


Plur. 1. Nos am-amus, 


We love, 


2. Vos am-atis, 


Ye or you love, 


3. Illi am-ant, 


They love. 


•' J Imperfect, loved, did love, or was loving. 


Sing. 1. Ego am-abam, 


I loved, 


2. Tu am-abas, 


Thou lovedst, 


3. Ille am-abat, 


He loved. 


Plur. 1. Nos am-abamus, 


We loved, 


2. Vos am-abatis, 


Ye or you loved, 


3. Illi am-abant, 


They loved. 



Perfect, loved, have loved, or did love. 
Sing. 1. Ego am-avi, I have loved, 

2. Tu am-avisti, Thou hast loved. 

3. Ille am-avit, He hath loved. 
Plur. 1. Nos am-avimus, We have loved, 

2. Vos am-avistis, Ye have loved, 

3. Illiam-averunt,tt.-avere, They have loved. 



FIRST 


CONJUGATION-. 


Pluperfect, had. 


Sing. 1. Ego am-averam, 


/ had loved, 


2. Tu am-averas, 


Thou hadst loved, 


3. Ille am-averat, 


He had loved. 


Plur. 1. Nos am-averamus, 


We had loved, 


2. Vos am-averatis, 


Ye had loved, 


3. Mi am-averant, 


They had loved. 


Future. 


shall or will. 


Sing. 1. Ego am-abo, 


I shall love, 


2. Tu am-abis, 


Thou shalt love, 


3. Ille am-abit, 


He shall love. 


Plur. 1. Nos am-abimus, 


We shall love, 


2. Vos am-abitis, 


Ye shall love, 


3. Mi am-abunt, 


They shall love* 



81 



Subjunctive Mode. 
Present Tense, may, or can, or let. 

Sing. 1. Ego am-em, I may love, 

2. Tu am-es, Thou mayest love r 

3. Ille am-et, He may love. 
Plur* 1. Nos am-emus, We may love, 

2. Vos am-etis, Ye may love, 

3. Mi am-ent, They may love* 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should. 

Sing. 1. Ego am-arem, I might love. 

2. Tu am-ares, Thou mightest love* 

3. Ille am-aret, He might love. 
Plur. 1. Nos am-aremus, We might love, 

2. Vos am-aretis, Ye might love, 

3. Mi am-arent, - They might love* 

Perfect, may have. 

Sing. 1. Ego am-averim, I may have loved, 

2. Tu am-averis, Thou mayest have loved, 

3. Ille am-averit, He may have loved. 
Plur. I. Nos am-avenmus, We may have loved, 

2. Vos am-averitis, Ye may have loved, 

3. Mi am-averint, They may have loved. 

Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have ; or had. 

Sing. 1. Ego am-avissem, J might have loved, 

2. Tu am-avisses, Thau mightest have loved, 

d. Me am-avisset. ff e m ight have loved. 



82 FIRST CONJUGATION. 

Plur. 1. Nos am-avissemus, We might have loved, 

2. Vos am-avissetis, Ye might have loved, 

3. Illi am-avissent. They might have loved. 

Future, shall have. 
Sing. 1. Ego am-avero, I shall have loved, 

2. Tu am-averis, Thou shalt have loved, 

3. Ille am-avent, He shall have loved. 
Plur. 1. Nos am-averimus, We shall have loved, 

2. Vos am-averitis, Ye shall have loved, 

3. Illi am-averint, They shall have loved* 

Imperative Mode. 
Sing. 2. Am-a vel am-ato tu, Love thou, or do thou love, 

3. Am-ato ille, Let him love. 

Plur. 2. Am-ate,veZam-atotevos, Love ye, or do ye love, 

3. Am-anto illi, Let them love. 



Infinitive Mode. 
Pres. Am-are, To love. 
Perf. Am-avisse, To have loved. 
FuU Esse amaturus, -a, -um, To be about to love. 

Fuisse amaturus, -a, -um, To have been about to love. 


Present, Am-ans, 
Future, Am-aturus, 


| Participle. 

Loving, 
-a, -um, About to love. 


Norn. Am-andum, 
Gen. Am-andi, 
Dot. Am-ando, 
Ace. Am-andum, 
Abl. Am-ando, 


" Gerunds. 

Loving, 
.» Of loving, 
To loving, 
Loving, 
With loving. 


Former, Am-atum, 
Latter, Am-atu, 


Supine. 

To love, 

To love, or to be loved. 


Present Indicative. 
Amor, 


PASSIVE VOICE. 

Perfect Participle. Infinitive. 
amatiis, amari, to be loved. 



Indicative Mode. 
Present Tense, am. 
Sing. 1. Ego am-or, lam loved, 

2. Tu am-aris, vel -are, Thou art loved, 

3. Ille am-atur, He is loved. 



FIRST CONJUGATION- 83 

Plur. 1. Nos am-amur, We are loved, 

2. Vos am-amini, Ye or you are loved, 

3. IUi am-antur, They are loved. 

Imperfect, was. 

Sing. 1. Ego am-abar, I was loved, 

2. Tu am-abaris, vel -abare, Thou wast loved, 

3. Hie am-abatur, He was loved. 
Plur. 1. Nos am-abamur, We were loved, 

2. Vos am-abamini, Ye were loved, 

3. Illi am-abantur, They were loved. 

Perfect, am, have been, or was. 
Sing. 1. Ego amatus (-a, -urn) > j h & j d 
sum, vel fui, $ ' 

2. Tu amatus es, v. fuisti, Thou hast been lovec 

3. Ille amatus est, v. fuit, He hath been loved. 
Plur. 1. Nos amati (-*,' -a) su- > ^ ^ &een w 

mus, a. fuimus, $ 

2. Vos amati estis, v. fuistis, Ye have been loved, 

3. Illi amati sunt, fuerunt, > TA ^ j £en w> 

r. fuere, $ * 

Pluperfect, had been ox was. 
Sing. 1. Ego amatus (-a, -urn) > j Rad bem w 
eram, vel fueram, $ 

2. Tu amatus eras, v. fueras, Thou hadst been loved, 

3. Ille amatus erat,t?.fuerat, He had been loved. 
Plur. 1. Nos amati (-a,, -a) era- > w had bem w 

mus, v. fueramus, \ 

2. Vos amati eratis, v. fu- i Ye had bem w 

eratis, \ 

3. Illi amati erant, r. fu. i They had been faed. . 

erant, \ 

Future, shall or will be. 
Sing. 1. Ego am-abor, I shall be loved, 

2. Tu am-aberis, vel -abere, Thou shalt be loved, 

3. Illefam-abitur, He shall be loved. 
Plur. 1. Nos am-abimur, We shall beloved, 

2. Vos am-abimini, Ye shall be loved, 

3. Illi am-abuntur, They shall be loved, 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Present Tense, may, or can be, or let. 
Sing. 1. Ego am-er, / may be loved, 

2. Tu am-eris, vel -ere, Thou mayest be loved 7 

3. Ille am-etur, He, may be loved. 



84 FIRST CONJUGATION. 

Plur* 1. Nos am-emur, We may be loved) 

2. Vos am-emini, Ye may be loved, 

3. Illi am-euntur, They may be loved. 

Imperfect, might, could, would, or should be. 
Sing. 1. Ego am-arer, / might be loved, 

2. Tu am-areris, v. arere, Thou mightest be loved, 

3. Hie am-eretur, He might be loved^ 
Plur. 1. Nos am-aremur, We might be loved, 

2. Vos am-aremini, Ye might be loved, 

3. Illi am-arentur, They might be loved. 

Perfect, may have been. 
Sing. 1. Ego amatus (-a, -urn) > r ^ u ^ 
sim, -ye/ fuerim, ) * 

2. Tu amatus sis, v. fueris, Thou mayest have been loved, 

3. Ille amatus sit, v. fuerit, He may have been loved. 

Plur. 1. Nos amati (-ae, -a) si- ) Tjr 7 7 7 . , 

*. v .' ' > Vre may have been loved, 
mus> v. fuenmus, ) J 

2. Vos amati sitis, v. fu- ^ T7 - 7 7 7 7 

r : > Fe wiav /tave been loved, 

entis, / $ 9 ; 

- 3. Illi amati sint, v* fue- 



rint, 



T%e?/ may have been loved. 



Pluperfect, might, could, would, or should have been; or 
had been. 

Sing. 1. Ego amatus (-a, -urn)) Imighthavebeen Wj 
essem, i?e/ fuissem, $ * 

. > Thou mightest have been loved* 

isses, ^ 

3 * "fuiSf" 3 eSS6t ' " \ He might have been loved > 
Plur. l.,Nos amati (-33, -a) es- > ^ ^ fc ^^ ^ ^ 

semus t\ iuissemus, J & 

? . ' ' > Fe mi^-fa Aa#e been loved, 

iuissetis, ) 

3. Illi amati essent v. fu- ) m 7 • 7 . 7 77 ^ 
> i /iei/ might nave been Loved. 
isseiit, \ 

Future, shall have been. 

Sing. 1. Ego amatus (-a, -urn) ) iada have bem w 
fuero, ) 

2. Tu amatus fueris, Thou shalt have been loved, 

3. Ille amatus fuerit, He shall have been loved. 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 



Plur. 1. Nos amati (-ae, -a) fu- 
erimus, 

2. Vos amati fueritis, 

3. Illi amati fuerint, 



We shall have been loved, 

Ye shall have been loved, 
They shall have been loved. 

Imperative Mode. 
Sing. 2. Am-are vel am-ator tu, Be thou loved, 

3. Am-ator ille, Let him be loved. 

Plur. 2. Am-ammi vos, Be ye loved, 

3. Am-antor illi, Let them be loved. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Pres. Am-ari, To be loved, 

Per/. Ewer, fuisse amatus, -a, > T ^ b ^ 
-um, $ ' 

Fut. Am-atum iri, To be about to be loved. 

Participle. 
Per/. Am-atus, -a, -um, Loved. 

Fut. Am-andus, -a, -um, To be loved. 



SECOND CONJUGATION. 





ACTIVE 


VOICE, 




Pres. Indie. 
Doceo, 


Perf. Sup. 
docui, doctum, 


Infin. Pres. 
docere, To teach. 




Indicative Mode. 




Sing. 
1« 2. 3. 


1. 


Plur. 
2. 3. 


Pres. Doc-eo, 


-es, -et ; 


-emus, 


-etis, -ent. 


Imp. Doc-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; 


-ebamus, 


-ebatis, -ebant, 


Perf. Doc-ui, 


-uisti, -nit; 


-uimus, 


-uistis, -uerunt, 
v. -uere 


Plu. Doc-ueram, -ueras, -uerat 


; -ueramus, 


-ueratis, -uerant. 


Fut. Doc-ebo, 


-ebis, -ebit ; 


-ebimus, 


-ebitis, -ebunt. 



Subjunctive Mode. 

Pres. Doc-eam, : eas, -eat; -eamus, -eatis, -eant. 

Imp. Doc-erem, -eres, -eret; -eremus, -eretis, -erent. 

Perf. Doc-uerim, -ueris, -uerit; -uenmus, -ueritis, -uerint. 

Plu. Doc-uissem,-uisses,-uisset; -uissemus, -uissetis, -uissent. 

Fut. Doc-uero, -ueris, -uerit; -uerimus, -ueritis, -uerint. 

Imperative Mode. 

2. 3. 2. 3. 

Pres. Doc-e vel -eto, -eto ; -ete vel -etote, -ento. 

H 



86 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



Infinitive. Participles. Gerunds. Supines* 

Pres. Doc-ere. Pr. Doc-ens. Doc-endum, 1. Doc-turn* 
Perf. Doc-uisse. Fut. Doc-turus. Doc-endi, 2. Doc-tu. 

Fut. Esse docturus, -a, -um, Doc-endo, &c. 
Fuisse docturus, -a, -um. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 



Pres. Indie. Perf Part. Pres. Infin. 
Doceor, doctus, doceri, To be taught. 

Indicative Mode. 



Sing. 



Plur. 
Pres. Doc-eor, -eris vel -ere, -etur; -emur, -emini, -entur. 

Imp. Doc-ebar, -ebaris vel -ebare, -ebatur; -ebamur, -ebamini, -ebantur. 
Perf. Doctus sum vel fui, doctus es vel fuisti, doctus est vel fuit, &c. 
Plu. Doctus eram v. fueram, doctus eras v. iueras, doctus erat v. fuerat, &c. 
Fut. Doc-ebor, -eberis vel -ebere, -ebitur, -ebimur, -ebimini, -ebuntur. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



Pres. Doc-ear, -earis vel -eare, -eatur; -eamur, -eamini, -eantur. 
Imp. Doc-ere, -ereris vel -erere, -eretur; -eremur, -eremini, -erentur. 
Perf. Doctus sim vel fuerim, doctus sis vel fueris, doctus sit vel fuerit, &c. 
Plu. Doctus essem v. fuissem, doctus esses v. fuisses, doctus esset v. fuisset, &c. 
Ftit. Doctus fuero, doctus fueris, doctus fuerit, docti fuerimus, &c. 



Imperative Mode. 



2. 3. 

Pres. Doc-ere vel -etor, -etor ; 

Infinitive. 
Pres. Doc-eri. 

Perf. Esse vel fuisse doctus, -a, -um. 
Fut. Doc turn iri. 



2. 3. 

-emini, -entor. 

Participles. 
Perf. Doc-tus, -a, -um. 
Fut. Doc-endus, -a, -um. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 



Pres. Ind. Perf. 
Lego, legi, 



ACTIVE VOICE. 

Supine. Pres. Infin. 
lectum, legere, 

Indicative Mode. 



To read. 



Singular. 

1. 2. 3. 

Pres. Leg-o, -is, -it ; 

Imp. Leg-ebam, -ebas, -ebat ; 

Perf. Leg-i, -isti, -it ; 

Plu. Leg-eram, -eras, -erat; 

Fut. Leg-am, -es, -et; 



Plural. 
1. 2. 3. 

-lmus, -itis, -unt. 
-ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant 
-lmus, -istis,-erunt, -ere. 
-eramus, -eratis, -erant. 
-emus, -etis, -ent. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 87 



Subjunctive Mode. 
Singular. Plural. 
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 

Pres. Leg-am, -as, -at ; -amus, -atis, 
Imp. Leg-erem, -eres, -eret; -eremus, -eretis, 
Perf. Leg-erim, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, 
Plu. Leg-issem, -isses, -isset ; -issemus, -issetis, 
Fut. Leg-ero, -eris, -erit; -erimus, -eritis, 


3. 

-ant. 

-erent. 

-erint. 

-issent. 

-erint. 


Imperative Mode. 
2. 3. 2. 
Pres. Leg-e, tteZ-ito, -lto ; -Tte, vel -ltote, 


3. 
-unto. 


Infinitive. Participles. 
Pres. Leg-ere. Pr. Leg-ens. 
Perf. Leg-isse. Fut. Lec-turus. 
Fut. Esse lecturus, -a, -um, 
Fuisse lecturus, -a, -um. 


Gerunds. 
Leg-endum, 1. 
Leg-endi, 2. 
Leg-endo, &c. 


Supines. 
> Lec-tum. 
, Lec-tu. 


PASSIVE VOICE. 




Pres.Ind. Perf. Part. P\ 
Legor, lectus, 


res. Infin. 

legi, To be read. 



Indicative Mode. 
Singular. Plural. 

Pres. Leg-or, -eris vel -ere, -ltur ; -imur, -imini, -tmtur. 

Imp. Leg-ebar, -ebaris vel -ebare, -ebatur ; -ebamur, -ebamini, -ebantur. 
Perf. Lectus sum vel fui, lectus es vel fuisti, lectus est vel fuit, &c. 
Plu. Lectus eram vel fueram, lectus eras vel fueras, lectus erat vel fuerat, &c. 
Fut. Leg-ar, -eris vel -ere, -etur, -eraur, -emini, -entur. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Pres. Leg-ar, -aris vel -are, -atur; -amur, -amini, -antur. 

Imp. Leg-erqr, -ereris vel -erere, -eretur ; -eremur, -eremini, -erentur. 

Perf. Lectus sim vel fuerim, lectus sis vel fueris, lectus sit vel fuerit, &c. 
Plu. Lectus essem v. fuissem, lectus esses v. fuisses, lectus esset v. fuisset, &c, 
Fut. Lectus fuero, lectus fueris, lectus fuerit, &c. 

Imperative Mode. 
2. 3. 2. 3. 

Pres. Leg-ere, vel -itor, -ltor; -imini, -untor. 

Infinitive, Participles. 

Pres. Leg-i. Fut. Leg-endus, -a, -um. 

Perf. Esse v. fuisse lectus, -a, -um. Perf. Lec-tus, -a, -um. 
Fut. Lectum iri. 

But verbs of the third conjugation in io differ in some 
parts from lego, and retain i before -unt y -unto, -ebam, -ebar, 



88 



THIKD CONJUGATION. 



•am, -ar, -ens, ~endusyendum ; as, cupio, fodio, quatio, &c, 
Thus, 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Indie. Perf. Indie. Supine. Pres.Infin. 

Fodio, fodi, fossum, fodere, To stab* 

Indicative Mode. 
Present Tense. 



Singular. 

1. Fodio, 

2. Fodis, 

3. Fodit. 

1. Fodiebam, 

2. Fodiebas, 

3. Fodiebat. 

1. Fodiam, 

2. Fodies, 

3. Fodiet. 



1. Fodiam, 

2. Fodias, 

3. Fodiat. 



Plural. 

1. Fodimus, 

2. Foditis, 

3. Fodiunt. 

1. Fodiebamus, 

2. Fodiebatis, 

3. Fodiebant. 

1. Fodiemus, 

2. Fodietis, 

3. Fodient. 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Present Tense. 

1. Fodiamusy - 

2. Fodiatis, 

3. Fodiant. 



Imperfect. 



Future. 



Imperative Mode. 
Present Tense. 

2. Fode or fodito, 2. Fodite or foditote, 

3. Fodito, 3. Fodiunto. 

Participles. 

Pres. Fodiens. Fut. Fossiirus. 

» 

Gerunds. 
Nom. Fodiendum, Dot. Fodiendo, 

Gen. Fodiendi, Ace. Fodiendum. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Indie. Perf. Part. Pres. Infin. 
Fodior, 



To be stahbed. 



fossils, fodi, 

Indicative Mode. 
Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Fodior, 1. Fodimiir, 

2. Fodgris, vel -ere, 2. Fodimini, 
3rFoditur. 3. Fodiuntun 





FOTTBTH CONJUGATION. 




Imperfect, 




Singular. Plural. 


1. 


Fodiebar, 1. FodiebamUr, 


2. 


Fodiebaris, vel -bare, 2. Fodiebamini, 


3. 


Fodiebatur. 3. Fodiebantur. 




Future. 


1. 


Fodiar, 1. Fodiemur, . 


2. 


Fodieris, vel -ere, 2. Fodiemini, 


3. 


Fodietur. 3. Fodientur. 



89 



Subjunctive Mode. 
Present Tense. 

1. Fodiar, \ 1. FodTamur, 

2. Fodiaris, vel -are, 2. Fodiamini, 

3. Fodiatur. 3. Fodiantiir. 

Imperative Mode. 
Present Tense. 

2. Fodere, vel foditor, 2. F6dimini v 

3. Foditor. 3. Fodiuntor. 

Participles. 
Tut. Fodiendus, -a, -um. 

For the other parts of fodio, see like parts of lego, active 
and passive voice. 

FOURTH CONJUGATION. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Pres. Indi Perf. Supine. Pres. Infin* 

Audio, audivi r auditum, audire, To hear. 

Indicative Mode. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 

Pr. Aud-io, -is, -it; -Imus, -itis, -iunt. 
Imp. Aud-iebara, -iebas, -iebat; -iebamus, -iebatis, -iebant. 

Per. Aud-ivi, -ivisti, -ivit ; -ivinius, -ivistis, \ -x' 

Plu. Aud-iveram,-iveras,-iverat; -iveramus, -iveratis, -iverant. 
Fut. Aud-iam, -ies, »iet ; -iemus, -ietis, -ient. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Pr. Aud-iam, -ias, -iat; -iamus, -iatis, -iant 

Imp. Aud-irem, -ires, -iret ; -iremus, -iretis, -irent 

Per. Aud-iverim, -iveris, -iverit; -iverimus, -iveritis, -iverint. 

Plu. Aud-ivissem, -ivisses, -ivisset; -ivissemus, -ivissetis, -ivissent 

Fut Aud-ivero, -iveris, -iverit; -iverimus, -iveritis, •-iverint 

h2 



90 FORMATION OF VERBS. 

Imperative Mode. 

2. 3. 2. 3. 

Aud-i, vel -Ito -Ito; -Ite, vel -itote, -iunto. 

Infinitive. Participles. Gerunds. Supines. 

Pr. Aud-ire. Pr. Aud-iens. Aud-iendum, 1. Auditum. 

Per. Aud-i visse. Fu. Aud-iturus. Aud-iendi, 2. Auditu. 

Fut. Esse auditurus, -a, -um, Aud-iendo, &c. 
Fuisse auditurus, -a, -um. 

passive voice. • 
Pres. Indicative. Perf. Part. Pres. Infin. 

Audior, Auditus, Audiri, To be heard. 

Indicative Mode. 

Sing. Plur. 

Pres. Aud-ior, -iris vel -ire, -Itur; -Imur, -imini, -iunlur. 

hnp. Aud-iebar, -iebaris vel -iebare, -iebatur; -iebaraur, -iebamini, -iebantur. 
Perf. Auditus sum vel fui, auditus es v. fuisti, auditus est v. fuit, &c. x 

Plu. Auditus erara v. fueram, auditus eras v. fueras, auditus erat v. fuerat, &c. 
Fut. Aud-iar s -ieris vel -iere, -ietur; -iemur, -iemini, -ientur. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Pres. Aud-iar, -iaris vel -iare, -iatur; -iamur. -iamini, -iantur. 
Imp. Aud-irer, -ireris vel -irere, -iretur; -iremur, -iremini, -irentur. 
Perf. Auditus sim vel fuerim, auditus sis v. fueris, auditus sit v. fuerit, &c. 
Plu. Auditus essem v. fuissem, auditus esses v. fuisses, auditus esset v. fuisset, &c. 
Fut. Auditus fuero, auditus fueris, auditus fuerit, &c. 

Imperative Mode. 
2. 3. 2. 3. 

Pres. Aud-ire, vel -itor, -Itor ; -Imini, -iuntor. 

Infinitive. Participles* 

Pr. Aud-iri, Per. Aud-itus, -a, -um. 

Per, Esse v. fuisse auditus, -a, -um, Fut. Aud-iendus, -a, -um. 
Fut. Auditum iri. 

FORMATION OF VERBS. 

There are four principal parts of a verb, from which all the 
rest are formed ; namely, o of the present, i of the perfect, 
um of the supine, and re of the infinitive ; according to the 
following rhyme : 

1. From o are formed am and em. 

2. From i ; ram, rim, ro, sse, and ssem. 

3. U, us, and rus, are form'd from um. 

4. All other parts from re do come ; as, bam, bo, rem, a, e, 
and % ; ns and dus ; dum, do, and di ; as, 

Anvo,-em; Am-avi, -eram, -erim, -issem, -ero, -isse; Amat-ura, -u, -urns, -u&* 
Anvare, -abam, -abo, -arem, -a, -ans, -andum,-di,-do ; -andus. 



FORMATION OF VERBS. 91 

The passive voice is formed from the active, by adding r too, or changing 
m into r. 

But it is much more easy and natural to form all the parts 
of a verb from the present and perfect of the indicative, and 
from the supine in urn; thus, 

Present. Perfect Tense. Supine. 

From Amo, ama or ato, From Amavl^ From Amatura, 

come amabam, amare, come amaveram, come amatu, 

amabo, amans, amaverim, amatus, 

a mem, amandum, amavissem, amaturus. 

amarem, amandus. amavero, 

amavlsse. 

So Doceo, -ebam, -ebo, -earn, -erem, -e or -eto, -ere, -ens, -endum, -endus. 

DocuT, -eram, -erim, -issem, -ero, -Isse. . 

Doctum, -u, -us, -uriis. 
Lego, ^ebam, -am, -am, -erem, -c or -ito, -ere, -ens, -endum, -endus. 

Legi, -eram. -erim, -issem, -ero, -isse. 

Lectum, -u, -us, -iirus. 
Audio, -iebam, -iam, -iam, -irem, -I or -ito, -ire, -iens, -iendum, -iendus. 

Audivi, -lveram, -Iverim, -ivissem, -ivero, -Ivisse. 

Auditiim, -itxi, -Itus, -itiirus. 
So Fodio, a verb, in ~io of the third conjugation. 
Fodio, -iebam, -iam, -iam, -erem, -e or -ito, -ere, -iens, -iendum, -iendus, 

Fodi, -eram, -erim, -issem, -ero,-isse. 

Fossum, -u, -iis, -urus. 

RULES 
For forming the Verb according to this natural order v 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present, from the Dictionary, as amo. 

Imperfect is formed from the third person plural of the 
present, by changing nt into bam, in the first and second 
conjugation ; as, amant, amabam ; docent, docebam ; and unt 
into ebam, in the third and fourth; as, leg-unt, leg-ebam; au* 
diunt, audiebam. 

Future is from the same, by changing nt into bo, in the 
first and second ; as, amant, amabo ; and unt into am, in the 
third and fourth ; as, legunt, legam ; audi-unt, audi-am. 

Perfect, from the Dictionary, as am-avi. 

Pluperfect comes from the first person singular of the per- 
fect, by changing, in all conjugations, i into eram; as, docu-i, 
docu-eram ; leg-i, leg-eram. 

Imperative Mode. 
Present Imperative comes from the second person singular 
of present indicative, by changing is into e, in the third ; as, 
legis, leg-e ; but casting off s in the other three conjugations-; 
as, am-as, am-a, <Sfc. 



92 FORMATION OF VERBS. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

The Present is formed from the first person singular of pres- 
ent indicative, by changing o into em, in the first, as, am-o, 
am-em; and into am in the other conjugations; as, doce-o, 
doce-am ; aud-io, audi-am. 

Imperfect is from the second person singular of the impera- 
tive, by adding rem; as, am-a, ama-rem ; leg-e, lege-rem. 

Perfect comes from the first person singular of perfect in- 
dicative, by changing i into erim ; as, amavi, amav-erim, &e. 

Pluperfect Sub. from the same, by adding ssem : as, docu-i, 
docu-issem ; audiv-i, audiv-issem, 

Future Sub. from the same, by changing i into ere ; as, 
leg -I, leg-ero, &c. 

Supine, in um, from Dictionary. 

The Supine in u is from that in um, by casting off m ; as, 
doc-tum, doc4u, &c. 

Infinitive Mode. 

The Present comes from the second person singular of the 
imperative, by adding re; as, ama, amdre ; doce, docere. 

Perfect Infinitive, from the first person singular of perfect 
indicative, by adding sse ; as, docui, docuisse ; legi, legisse. 

Future Infinitive is from the supine in u, by adding rus, 
and also esse oxfuisse: as, doctu, docturus-esse or fuisse. 

The Future Participle is from the same, by adding rus ; 
as, ama-tu, amaturus ; auditu, auditurus. 

The Present Participle comes from the first person singu- 
lar of the imperfect indicative, by changing the last syllable 
intows; as, lege-bam, legens ; doce-ba?n,docens. So in .De- 
ponent Verbs, as, loque-bar, loquens. 

The Gerunds come from the same, by changing the last 
syllable 'into -ndum, -ndi, -ndo ; as, ama-bam, amandum, -i, 
do; audiebam, audiendum, -di, -do; morie-bar, moriendum, 
'di, -do. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

The tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive Passive are 
formed from the first person singular of like tenses in the 
active, by adding r to o, or changing m into r ; except the 
Preterites, the Future Subjunctive, and Perfect Infinitive, 
which are formed from the perfect participle and the verb 
sum : thus, from the present active amo, comes present passive 
amor; from amabam, amabar ; from amem, amer,6zc; and 
perfect indicative passive is amatus, sum or fui ; future sub- 



SIGNIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENT TENSES. 93 

junctive passive, amatus fuero; and perfect infinitive, ama- 
tus esse or fuisse. 

Imperative Mode. 

Imperative comes from the second person singular of the 
imperative active, by adding re ; as, ama, amare ; doce, do- 
cere. 

Present Infinitive Passive comes from the same, by chang- 
ing e into i in the third ; as, lege, legi ; and by adding ri in 
the other three conjugations ; as, doce, doceri ; audi, audiri. 

Future Infinitive Passive is formed by adding the supine in 
turn to iri, the infinitive passive of eo ; as, ledum iri, &c. 

Perfect Participle comes from the supine in u, by adding 
s ; as, amdtu, amatus ; lectu, lectus. 

Future Passive Participle is formed from the gerund in 
dum, by changing m into s ; as, amandum, amandus ; cupien* 
dum, cupiendus. 

A verb is commonly said to be conjugated, when only its 
principal parts are mentioned, because from them all the rest 
are derived. 

The first person of the present of the -indicative is called 
the Theme or the Root of the verb, because from it the other 
three principal parts are formed. 

The letters of a verb which always remain the same, are 
called Radical letters ; as, am in am-o. The rest are called 
the Termination ; as, abamus in am-abamus. 

All the letters which come before -are, -ere, -ere, or -ire, of 
the infinitive, are radical letters. By putting these before the 
terminations, all the parts of any regular verb may be readily 
formed, except the compound tenses. 

Signification of the Tenses in the various Modes. 

The tenses formed from the present of the indicative or infinitive signify in 
general the continuance of an action or passion, or represent them as present 
at some particular time ; the other tenses express an action or passion com- 
pleted ; but not always so absolutely, as entirely to exclude the continuance of 
the same action or passion ; thus, Amo, I love, do love, or am loving ,* ama- 
bam, I loved, did love, or was loving, &c. 

Amavi, I loved, did love, or have loved, that is, have done with loving, &c. 

In like manner, in the passive voice, Amor, I am loved, I am in loving, or in 
being loved, &c. 

Past time in the passive voice is expressed several different ways, by means 
of the auxiliary verb sum, and the participle perfect ; thus, 

Indicative Mode. 
Perfect. Amatus sum, I am, or have been loved, or oftener, I was loved. 

Amatus fui, I have been loved, or I was loved. 
Pluperfect. Amatus eram, I was or had been loved. 
Amatus fueram t I had been loveaV 



04 SIGNIFICATION OF THE DIFFERENT TENSES. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Perfect. Amatus sim, I may be or may have been loved. 

Amatus fuerim, I may have been loved. 
Pluperfect. Amatus essem, I might, could, would, or should be or have been 
loved. 
Amatus fuissem, I might, could, would, or should have been loved ; 
or I had been loved. 
Future. Amatus fuero, I shall have been loved. 

The verb sum is also employed to express future time in the indicative mode, 
both active and passive ; thus, 

Amaturus sum, I am about to love, I am to love, I am going to love, or I will 
love. 

We chiefly use this form when some purpose or intention is signified. 

Amatus ero, I shall be loved. 

Obs. 1. The participles amatus and amaturus are put before the auxiliary 
verb, because we commonly find them so placed in J the classics. 

Obs. 2. In these compound tenses the learner should be taught to vary the 
participle like an adjective noun, according to the gender and number of the 
different substantives to which it is applied ; thus, amatus est, he is or was loved, 
when applied to a man; amata est, she was loved, when applied to a woman; 
amatum est, it was loved, when applied to a thing; amati sunt, they were loved, 
when applied to men, &c. The connecting of syntax, so far as is necessary, 
with the inflection of nouns and verbs, seems to be the most proper method of 
teaching both. 

Obs. 3. The past time and participle perfect in English are taken in different 
ni^nir!^3, according to the different tenses in Latin which they are used to ex.? 
press. Thus, " I loved," when put for amabam, is taken in a sense different 
from what it has when put for amavi; so amor, and amatus sum, I am loved; 
amabar, and amatus eram, I was loved ; amer, and amatus sim, &c. In the one, 
loved is taken in a present, in the other, in a past sense. This ambiguity arises 
from the defective nature of the English verb. 

Obs. 4. The tenses of the subjunctive mode may be variously rendered ac- 
cording to their connexion with the other parts of a sentence. They are often 
expressed in English as the same tenses of the indicative, and sometimes one 
tense apparently put for another. 

Thus, Quasi intelligant, qualis sit. As if they understood, what kind of 
person he is, Cic. In f acinus jurasse putes, You would think, &c. Ov. Eloquar 
an sileam? Shall I speak out, or be silent? Nee vos arguerim, Teucri, for arguam, 
Virg. Si quid te fugerit, ego perierim, for peribo, Ter. Hunc ego si potui tan- 
turn sperare dolorem ; Et prefer ?-e, soror, potero: for potuissem, and possem, Virg. 
Singula quid referam? Why should I mention everything? Id. Pradiceres 
• mihi, You should have told me beforehand, Ter. At tu dictis, Albane, maneres, 
Ought to have stood to your word. Virg. Citius crediderim, I should sooner 
believe, Juv. Hauserit ensis, The sword would have destroyed, Virg. Fuerint 
(rati, Grant or suppose they were angry, Si id fecisset, If he did or should do 
that, Cic. The same promiscuous use of the tenses seems also to take place 
sometimes in the indicative and infinitive ; and the indicative to be put for the 
subjunctive ; as, Animus meminisse horret, luctuque refugit, for refugit, Virg. 
,Fuerat melius, fbrfuisset, Id. Invidiam dilapsa erat, for fuisset, Sail. Quamdiu 
in portum venis? for venisti, Plaut. Quam mox navigo Ephesum, for navigabo, 
Id. Tu si hie sis, aliter sentias, Ter. for esses and sentires. Cato qffirmat, se viva, 
ilium non triumphare, for triumphaturum esse, Cic. Persuadet Castico, ut occu- 
paret for occupet, Caes. 

The perfect indicative is also frequently Englished like the imperfect; as, 
nunquam amavi hunc hominem, I never loved the man, Juv. ; and after ante* 
quam, postquam, ubi or ut forpostquam, is often Englished by had; as,postquam 
ve?iit, after he had come ; ut me salutavit, after he had saluted me. 

Obs. 5. The future of the subjunctive and also of the indicative, is often ren- 
dered by the present of the subjunctive in English ; as, nisi hoc faciei, or feceriU 
jmless he do this, Ter. 



SIGNIFICATION OP THE DIFFERENT TENSES. 95 

Obs. 6. Instead of the imperative we often use the present of the subjunctive ; 
as, valeas, farewell ; hue venias, come hither, &c. And also the future both of 
the indicative and subjunctive; as, non occides, do not kill; ne feceris, do not 
do it ; valebis, meque, amabis, farewell, and love me. Cic. 

The present time and the preter-irn perfect of the infinitive are both expressed 
under the same form. All the varieties of past and future time are expressed 
by the other two tenses. But in order properly to exemplify the tenses of the 
infinitive mode, we must put an accusative, and some other verb, before each 
of them; thus, 

Dicit me scribere ; he says that I write, do write, or am writing. 
Dixit me scribere; he said that I wrote, did write, or was writing. 
Dicit me scripsisse ; he says that I wrote, did write, or have written. 
Dixit me se ipsisse ; he said that I had written. 
Dicit me scripturum esse ; he says that I will write. 
Dixit nos senpturos esse ; he said that we would write. 
Dicit nos script uros fuisse ; he says that we would have written. 
Dicit litems scribi ; he says that letters are written, writing, a-writing, or in 

writing. 
Dixit literal scribi; he said that letters were writing, or written. ^ 

Dicit literas scripias esse ; he says that letters are or were written. 
Dicit literas scriptas fuisse ; he says that letters have been written. 
Dixit literas scriptas fuisse ; he said that letters had been written. 
Dicit literas scriptum iri; he says that letters will be written. 
Dixit literas scriptum iri; he said that letters would be written. 

The future, scriptum iri, is made up of the former supine, and the infinitive 
passive of the veib eo, and therefore never admits of any variation. 

The future of the infinitive is sometimes expressed by a periphrasis or cir- 
cumlocution ; thus, scio fore vel futurum esse ut scribaid, — ut literal scribardur; 
I know that they will write,— that letters will be written. Scivi fore vel fatu- 
rum esse ut scriberent, — ut literal scriberentur ; I knew that they would write, 
&c. Scivi futurum fuisse, ut liters scriberentur; I knew that letters would 
have been written. This form is necessary in verbs which want the supine. 

Obs. 7. The different tenses, when joined with any expediency or necessity, 
are thus expressed : 
Scribendum est mihi, puero, nobis, &c. literas; I, the boy, we, &c. must write 

letters. 
Scribendum fuit mihi, puero, nobis, &c. I must have written, &c. 
Scribendum er it mihi; I shall be obliged to write. 
Scio scribendum esse mihi literas ; I know that I must write letters. 

Scribendum fuisse mihi; that I must have written. 

Dixit scribendum fore mihi ; he said that I should l>e obliged to Write. 

Or with the participle in dus : 
LiteroB sunt scribendas mihi, puero, hominibus, &c. or a me, puero, &c, ; letters 
are to be, or must be written by me, by the boy, by men, &c. So literal 
scribendas erunt, fuerunt, erunt, &c. So literal scribendas sint, essent, forent, 
&c. Scio literas scribendas esse : I know that letters are to be, or must be 
written. Scivi literas scribendas fuisse ; I knew that letters ought to have 
been, or must have been written. 

Note. Most of the simple tenses of a verb in Latin may be expressed as in 
English, by the participle and the auxiliary verb Sum; as, Sum amans, for 
amo, I am loving ; eram amans, for amabam, &c. Fui te carens, for carui, Plaut 
Ut sis sciens, for ut scias, Ter. Only the tenses in the active which come from 
the preterite, and those in the passive which come from the present, cannot be 
properly expressed in this manner; because the Latins have no participle per- 
fect active, nor participle present passive. This manner of expression, however, 
does not often occur. 



96 PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 

FORMATION of the PRETERITE and SUPINE. 

GENERAL RULES. 

I. Compound and simple verbs form the preterite and 
supine in the same manner ; as, 

Voco, vocdvi, vdcatum, to call : so, revoco, revocdvi, revocdtum, to recall. 

Exc. 1. When the simple verb in the preterite doubles the 
first syllable of the present, the compounds lose the former 
syllable; as, pello, pepuli, to beat; repello, repuli, never re- 
pepuli, to beat back. But the compounds of do, sto, disco, 
and yosco, follow the general rule ; thus, edisco, edidici, to get 
by heart; deposco, depoposci, to demand; so, prcecurro, prce- 
cucurri ; repungo, repupugi. 

Exc. 2. Compounds which change a of the simple verb into 
i, have e in the supine; as, /aczo, feci, factum, to make; per- 
ficio, perfect, perfectum, to perfect. But compound verbs 
ending in do and go ; also the compounds of habeo, pldceo, 
sapio, sdlio, and stdtuo, observe the general rule. 

3. Verbs which want the preterite, want likewise the 
supine. 

SPECIAL RULES* 

First Conjugation* 
Verbs of the first conjugation have am in the preterite, and 
dtum in the supine ; as, 

Creo, credvi, credtum, to create ; paro, pardvi, pardtum, to prepare. — So, 
Adumbro, to shade, to de- Fodico, to pierce or push. Oscito, & -or, to yawn, to 

lineate. Grave, to weigh down. be listless. 

JEdifico, to build. Gusto, to taste.- Paco, to subdue. 

Bajulo, to carry. Haesito, to doubt. Pio, to expiate. 

Basio, toMss. Halo, to breathe. Quad ro, to sq uare. 

Cselo, to carve. Jacto, to boast, to brag. Refrigero, to cool. 

Calceo, to put on shoes, to Jen to, to breakfast. Regelo, to thaw. 

shoe. Inchoo, to begin. Sagino, to fatten. 

Decimo, to take the tenth Indago, to trace out. Screo, to hawk or retch in 

part, or punish every tenth J ubilo, to shout for joy. spitting. 

man. Jurgo, & -or, to chide or Sibilo, to hiss. 

Decollo, to loose a thing scold. Susurro, to whisper. 

from the neck, to behead. Lanio, to tear. Taxo, to rate, reprov-e. 

Decurio, to divide soldiers Lego, to send as an ambas- Temero, to defile. 

into files or small com- sador, to bequeath. Ululo, to howl. 

panics, or citizens into Macto, to slay, to sacri- Umbro, to shade. 

wards. ' fice. Vacillo, to waver. 

Ejulo, to wail, to weep. Mano, to flow. Vellico, to pluck, twitch or 

Emancipo, to free a son Meo, to go or pass. pinch; to taunt or rail 

from the power of his Nauseo, to be sea-sick. at. 

father. Navo, to act vigorously. Voro, to devour. 

Fermento, to leaven with Occo, to harrow. Vulgo, to spread abroad. 

dough, to ferment wiOi. OdOro, to perfume. &c. 

Exc. 1. Do, dedi, datum, dare, to give ; so, venundo, to sell ; 
circundo, to surround ; pessundo, to overthrow ; satisdo, to give 



■CONJtTG. 1.] PRETERITES AND SUPINES, 97 

surety ; venundedi, venunddtum, venunddre, &c. The other 
compounds of do are of the third conjugation. 

Sto, steti, statum, to stand. Its compounds have stiti, sti- 
tum, and oftener statum; as, prcesto, prcestiti, prcestitum, or 
prastdtum, to excel, to perform. So ad-, ante-, con-, ex-, in- 
ob-, per-, pro-, re-sto. 

Exc. 2. Ldvo, lam, lotum, lautum, lavdtum, to wash. 

Pbto, potavi, pbtum, or pbtdtum, to drink. 

Juvo,juvi,jutum, to help ; fut. part, juvaturus. So adjiivo. 

Exc. 3. Cubo, cubui, cubitum, to lie. So ac-, ex-, be-, re- 
cubo. The 6ther compounds insert an m, and are of the third 
conjugation. 

Domo, domui, domitum, to sound. So e-, per-domo. 

Sono, sonui, sonitum, to sound. So as-, circum-, con-, dis-, 
ex-, in-, per-, prce-, re-sono. 

Tono, tonui, tonitum, to thunder. So at-, circum-, in-, 
superin-, re-tono. Horace has intonatus. 

Veto, vetui, vetitum, to forbid. 
^ Crepo, crepui, crepitum, to make a noise. So con-, in-, per-, 
re-crepo ; discrepo, has rather discrepdvu 

Exc. 4. Frico, fricui, frictum, to rub. So of-, circum-, 
con-, de-, ef-, in-, per-, re-frico. But some of these have also 
atum. 

Seco, secui, sectum, to cut. So circum-, con-, de-, dis-, ex- 
tn-, inter-, per-, prce-, re-, sub-seco. 

Neco, necui, or necavi, needtum, to kill. So inter-, e-neco : 
but these have oftener ectum; enectum, internectum. 

Mico micui, — — to glitter, to shine. So inter-, mb-mico. 
bmico has emicm, emiedtum: dimico, dimicdvi, dimicdtum, 
rarely dimicui, to fight. 

/ f* c * 5 ; These three wan * both preterite and supine ; labo, 
to foil or faint ; nexo, to bind ; and plico, to fold. 

Phco, compounded with a noun, or with the prepositions, 
re-, sub-, has am atum; as, duplico, duplicam, duplicatum, to 
double, ,bo multi-, sup-, re-plico. 

The other compounds of plico have either am and atum, or 
m znditum; as, applico, applicui, applicitum, or -dm, -atum, 
to apply. So^-, complwo. Explico, to unfold, has com- 
monly explicui, explicitum; but when it signifies to explain 
or interpret, explicdvi, explicdtum. 

Second Conjugation. 

i«l!, rb LA fth A e ^ COnd ^Wtion have ui and torn, ag, 
habeo, habvi, habitum, to have. So, 

I 



08 PRETERITES AND SUPINES. [cONJUG. 2* 

Adhibeo, to admit, to use. Moneo, to admonish : Ad-, com-, pra> 

Posthabeo, to value less. moneo. 

Redhibeo, to return, or take back a thing Terreo, to terrify: Abs-, con-, de-, ex-, 

that was sold for some fault. per-terreo. 

Debeo, to owe. Diribeo, to count over, to distribute. 

Mereo, to deserve: Com-, de-, e-, per-, &c 

pro-mereo, or mereor. 

Neuter verbs which have ui want the supine; as, dreo, 
drui, to be dry. So, 

Aceo, & -sco, to be sour. Immineo, to hang over. Putreo, to rot. 

Caneo, to be hoary. Liqueo, licui, to melt, to be Ranceo, to be mouldy. 
Emineo, to stand above clear. Stupeo, to be amazed. 

others. Muceo, to be mouldy. Tepeo, to be warm. 

Flacceo, to wither. Niteo, to shine. Vigeo, to be strong, &c 

Humeo, to be wet. 

But the neuter verbs which follow, together with their com- 
pounds, have the supine, and are regularly conjugated : Vdleo, 
to be in health ; and cequi-, con-, e-, in-, pra-valeo : Pldceo, to 
please; and com-, per-placeo : Displiceo, to displease: Cdreo, 
to want : Pareo, to appear, to obey ; and ap-, com-pdreo : 
'Jaceo, to lie; and ad-, circum-, inter-, ob-, prce-, sub-, super- 
jaceo : Caleo, to be warm ; and con-, in-, ob-, per-, re-cdleo : 
Noceo, to hurt : Doleo, to be grieved ; and con-, de-, in-, per~ 
doleo : Codleo, to grow together : Liceo, which in the active 
signifies to be lawful, to be valued ; and what is singular; in 
the passive, to bid a price : Ldteo, to lurk, the compounds of 
which want the supine,, deliteo, inter-, sub-lateo, as likewise 
do those of Tdceo, -cut, -citum, to be silent, con-, ob-, re- 
ticeo* 

These three active verbs likewise want the supine : Timeo, 
-ui, to fear: Sileo, -ui, to conceal: Arceo, -cui, to drive away : 
but the compounds of arceo have the supine; as, exerceo, 
exercui, exercitum, to exercise. So coerceo, to restrain. 

Exc. 1. The following verbs in BEO and CEO: 

Jubeo, jussi, jussum, to order. So Jide-jubeo, to bail, or be 
surety for. 

Sorbeo, sorbui, sorptum, to sup. So ab-sorbeo, to suck in; 
ex-, re-sorbeo. We also find absorpsi, exsorpsi : Exsorptum, 
resorptum, are not in use. 

Doceo, docui, doctum, to teach. So ad-, con-, de-, e-, per*, 
sub-do ceo. * 

Misceo, miscui, mistum, or mixtum, to mix. So ad-, com-, 
im-, inter-, per-, re-misceo. 

Mulceo, mulsi, mulsum, to stroke, to soothe. So ad-, circum-, 
com-, de-, per-, re-mulceo. 

Luceo, luxi, to shine. So ah, circum-, col-, di-, e-, il«, 

inter-, per-, or pel-, pr<e-, pro-, re-, sub-, trans-luceo. 



wmmmm 

C0NJTJG. 2.] PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 99 

Exc. 2. The following verbs in DEO: 

Prandeo, prandi, pransum, to dine. 

Video, vidi, visum, to see. So in-, per-, prce-, pro-, r$- 
video. 

Sedeo, sedi, sessum, to sit. So as-, con-, de-, dis-, in-, ob-, 
per-, pos-, prce-, re-, sub-sideo : Circumsideo, or circumsedeo, 
supersedeo. But de-, dis-, per-, prce-, re-, sub-sideo, seem to 
want the supine. 

Strideo, strldi, to make a noise. 

Pendeo, pependi, pensum, to hang. So de-, im-, pro-, super- 
pendeo. 

Mordeo, momordi, morsum, to bite. So ad-, com-, de-, ob-, 
prce-, re-mordeo. 

Spondeo, spopondi, sponsum, to promise. So de-, re- 
spondeo. 

Tondeo, totondi, tonsum, to clip. So at-, circum-, de- 
tondeo. 

But the compounds of these verbs do not double the first 
syllable ; thus, dependi, remordi, respondi, attondi, &c. 

Rideo, risi, risum, to laugh. So ar-, de-, ir-, sub-rideo. 

Suadeo, sudsi, suasum, to advise. So dis-, per-suddeo* 

Ardeo, arsi, arsum, to burn. So ex-, in-, ab-ardeo. 

Exc. 3. The following verbs in GEO : 

Augeo, auxi, auctum, to increase. So ad-, ex-augeo» 

Lugeo, luxi, to mourn. So e-, pro-, sub-lugeo* 

Frigeo,frixi, to be cold. So per-, re-frlgeo* 

Tergeo, tersi, tersum, to wipe* So abs-, circum-, de-, ear-, 

per-tergeo. 
Mulgeo, mulsi, mulsum,\ov mulctum, to milk. So e-, im* 

mulgeo. 

Indulgeo, indulsi, indultum, to grant, to indulge. 

Urgeo, ursi, to press. So ad-, ex-, in-, per-, sub-, 

super -urgeo. 

Fulgeo, fulsi, to shine. So of-, circum-, con-, ef-, 

inter-, prce-, re-, super-fulgeo. 

Turgeo, tursi, to swell. Algeo, alsi, to be cold. 

Exc. 4. The following verbs in IEO and LEO : 

Vieo, vievi, vietum, to bind with twigs, to hoop a vessel. 

CieOj, (civi) cltum, to stir up, to rouse. So ac-, con-, ex-, in-, 
per cieo. Civi comes from do of the fourth conjugation. 

Fleo,f,evi,f,etum, to weep. So of-, de-fieo. 

Compleo, complevi, completum, to fill. So the other com- 
pounds of pleo ; de-, ex-, im-, adim-, op-, re-, sup-pleo, 

Deleo, deUvi, deUtum, to destroy, to blot out. 



XOO PRETERITES AKD SUPINES. [CONJUG. 3* 

Oleo, to smell, has olui, olitum. So likewise its compounds, 
which have a similar signification ; ob-, per-, red-, sub-oleo. 
But such of the compounds as have a different signification 
make evi and etum ; thus, exoleo, exolevi, exoletum, to fade. 
So insoleo, -evi, -etum, or -itum, to grow into use ; obsoleo, -evi, 
-etum, to grow out of use. Aboleo, to abolish, has dbolevi, 
abolitum; and ddoleo, to grow up, to burn, adolevi, adultum. 

Exc. 5. Several verbs in NEO, QUEO, REO, and SEO. 

Maneo, mansi, mansum, to stay. So per-, re-maneo. 

JSfeo, nevi, netum, to spin. So per-neo. 

Teneo, tenui, tentum, to hold. So con-, de-, dis-, ob-, re-, 
sus-tineo. But attineo, pertineo, are not used in the supine ; 
and seldom abstineo. 

Torqueo, torsi, tortum, to throw, to whirl, to twist. Thus, 
con-, de-, dis-, ex-, in-, ob-, re-torqueo. 

Hcereo, hcesi, hcesum, to stick. Thus, ad-, con-, in-, ob; 
sub-hcereo. 

Torreo, torrui, tostum, to roast. So extorreo. 

Censeo, censui, censum, to judge. So ac-, per-, re-censeo T 
to review; succenseo, to be angry. 

Exc. 6. Verbs in VEO have vi, turn; as, moveo, mom, 
motum, to move ; Foveo, fovi, fotum, to cherish. So con-, re* 
foveo. So voveo, to vow or wish, and depoveo. 

Faveo, to favor ; has fdm, fautum ; and caveo, to beware 
of; cam, cnutum. So pra-caveo. 

Neuter verbs in veo want the supine ; as, pdveo, pdm, ta 
be afraid. 

Ferveo, to boil, to be hot, makes ferbvi. So de-, ef-, in-, 
per-, re -ferveo. 

Connweo, to wink, has connivi and eonnixi. 

Exc. 7. The following verbs want both preterite and supine $ 
Lacteo, to suck milk ; liveo, to be black and blue ; scdteo, to 
abound ; renldeo, to shine ; mozreo, to be sorrowful ; dveo, to 
desire ; polleo, to be able ; flaveo, to be yellow ; denseo, to 
grow thick; glabreo, to be smooth or bare. To these add 
calveo, to be bald ; ceveo, to wag the tail, as dogs do when 
they fawn on one ; hebeo, to be dull ; uveo, to be moist ; and 
some others. 

Third Conjugation. 
Verbs of the third conjugation form their preterite and 
supine variously, according to the termination of the present, 

IO. 

1. Fado, feci, factum, to do, to make. So the compounds 
which retain a : lueri-, magm-, &re-, catt*, made-, tepe«, bem^ % 



mmtm 

C0NJTJG. 3.] PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 101 

male-, satis-facio, &c. But those which change a into i have 
ectum ; as, officio, affeci, affectum. So con-, de-, ef-, in-, 
inter-, of-, per-, pra-, pro-, re-, sufficio. Note: Facto, com- 
pounded with a noun, verb, or adverb, retains a ; but when 
compounded with a preposition, it changes a into i. 

Some compounds of facto are of the first conjugation ; as, 
Amplrfico, sacrifico, terrifico,magnifico; gratificor, to gratify, 
or do a good turn, to give up : ludificor, to mock. 

Jacio, jeci, jactum, to throw. So ab-, ad-, circum-, con*, 
de-, dis-, e-, in-, inter-, ob-, pro-, re-, sub-, super-, superin-, 
tra-jicio ; in the supine -ectum. 

The compounds of specio and lacio, which themselves are 
not used, have exi and ectum ; as, aspicio, aspexi, aspectum, 
to behold. So circum-, con-, de-, dis-, in-, intro-, per-, pro-, 
re-, retro-, su-spicio. 

Allicio, allexi, allectum, to allure. So il-, pel-licio ; but 
elicio, to draw out, has elicui, elicitum. 

2. Fodio, fodi, fossum, to dig, to delve. So ad-, circum-, 
con-, ef-, in-, inter-, per-, pr&~, re-, suf, trans-fodio. 

Fugio, fugi, fugitum, to fly. So au-, (for ab-,) con-, de-, 
dif-, ef-, per-, pro-, re-, suf, subter-, transfugio, 

3. Cdpio, cepi, captum, to take. So ac-, con-, de-, ex-, in-, 
inter-, oc-, per-, pra-, re-, sus-cipio, (in the supine -ceptum ;) 
and anie-cdpio. 

Rdpio, rdpui, raptum, to pull or snatch. So ab-, ar-, cor*, 
de-, di-, e-, prce-, pro-, sur-ripio, -ripui, -reptum. 

Sdpio, sapid, to favor, to be wise. So consipio, to be 

well in one's wits ; desipio, to be foolish ; resipio, to come to 
one's wits. 

Ciipio, cujnvi, cupntum, to desire. So con-, dis-, per-cupio. 

4. Pdrio, peperi, paritum, or partum, to bring forth a child, 
to get. Its compounds are of the fourth conjugation. 

Qudtio, quassi, quassum, to shake ; but quassi is hardly 
used. Its compounds have cussi, cussum, as, conditio, con- 
cussi, concussum. So de-, dis-, ex-, in-, per-, re-, reper-, sue-, 
cutio. 

UO has ui, utum ; as, 

Arguo, argui, argutum, to show, to prove, or argue, to re- 
prove. So co-, red-arguo, to confute. So, 

Acuo, exacuo, to sharpen. Sternuo, to sneeze. 

Batuo, vel battuo, to beat, to fight, to fence Suo, to sew or stitch, to tack together: 

with foils. Ascircura-, con-, dis-, in-, prae-, re- 

Exuo, to put off clothes, suo, &c. 

Exc. 1. Fluo,fluxi,fitixum, to flow. So af-\ circum-, con-, 
i2 



102 PRETERITES AND SUPINES. [cONJTJG. 3. 

de-, dif-, ef-, in-, inter-, per-, prceter-, pro-, re-, subter-, super-, 
trans-fluo. 

Struo, struxi, structum, to put in order, to build. So ad-, 
circum-, con-, de-, ex-, in-, oh-, prce-, sub-, super-struo. 

Exc. 2. Luo, lui, luitum, to pay, to wash away, to suffer 
punishment. Its compounds have utum; as, abluo, -iii, -utum, 
to wash away, to purify. So al-, circum-, col-, de-, di-, e-, 
inter-, per-, pol-, pro-, sub-luo. 

Ruo, rui, ruitum, to rush, to fall. Its compounds have 
utum ; as, diruo, dirui!, dirutum, to overthrow. So e-, ob-, 
pro-, sub -ruo. Corruo, and irruo, want the supine ; as like- 
wise do metuo, to_fear ; pluo, to rain ; ingruo, to assail ; con- 
gruo, to agree ; respuo, to reject, to slight ; annuo, to assent ; 
and the other compounds of the obsolete verb nuo ; abnuo, to 
refuse ; innuo, to nod or beckon with the hand ; renuo, to deny ; 
all which have ui in the preterite. 

BO has bi, bitum; as, 

Bibo, bibi, bibitum, to drink. So ad-, com-, e-, im-, per-, 
prce-bibo. 

Exc. 1. Scribo, scripsi, scriptum, to write. So ad-, circum-, 
con-, de-, ex-, in-, inter-, per-, post-, prce-, pro-, re-, sub-, 
super-, supra-, trans-scribo. 

Nubo, nupsi, nuptum, to veil, to be married. So de-, e-, in-, 
ob-mibo. Instead of nupsi, we often find nupta sum, 

Exc. 2. The compounds of citbo in this conjugation insert 
an m before the last sjdlable ; as, accumbo, accubui, accilbi- 
ium, to recline at table. So con-, de-, dis-, in-, oc-, pro-, re-, 
sue-, superin-cumbo, cubui, -cubitum. 

These two verbs want the supine ; scabo, sedbi, to scratch ; 
lambo, Iambi, to lick. So ad-, circum-, de-, prce-lambo. 

Glubo and deglubo, to strip, to flay, want both preterite and 
supine. 

CO. 

1. Dlco, dixi, dictum, to say. So ah-, ad-, con-, contra-, 
e-t in-, inter-, prce-, pro-dico. 

Duco, duxi, ductum, to lead. So ab-, ad-, circum-, con-, 
de-, di-, e- y in-, intro-, ob-, per-, prce-, pro-, re-, se-, sub-, tra-, 
or trans-duco. 

2. Vinco, vici, victum, to overcome. So con-, de-, e-, per-, 
re-mnco. 

Par co, peperci, par sum, seldom par si, parstium y to spare. 
So comparco, or comperco, which is seldom used- 
Ico, lei, ictum r to strike* 



C0NJUG. 3.] PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 103 

SCO has vi, turn ; as, 
Nosco, novi, notum, to know ; fut. part, nosciturus. So, 

Dignosco, to distinguish ; ignosco, to par- Scisco, -ivi, -Itum, to ordain; ad-, or 

don ; also inter-, per-, prae-nosco. ascisco, to take, to associate ; concis- 

Cresco, -evi, -etum, to grow: Con-, de-, co, to vote, to commit; also prae-, re- 
ex-, re-, and without the supine, a£-, scisco ; descisco, to revolt. 
in-, per-, pro-, sue-, super-cresco. Suesco, to be accustomed; As-, con-, 

Quiesco, -evi, -etum, to rest: Ac-, con-, de-, in-suesco, -evi, -etum. 
inter-, re-quiesco. 

Exc. 1. Agnosco, agnovi, agmtum, to own; cognosco, cog' 
novi, cognitum, to know. So re cognosco, to review. 
Pasco, pdvi, pastum, to feed. So com-, de-pasco. 

Exc. 2. The following verbs want the supine. 

Disco, didici, to learn. So ad-, con-, de-, e-, per-, prce* 
disco, didici. 

Posco, poposci, to demand. So ap-, de-, ex-, re-posco. 

Compesco, compescui, to stop, to restrain. So dispesco, 
dispescui, to separate. 

Exc. 3. Glisco, to grow ; fatisco, to be weary; and like- 
wise inceptive verbs, want both preterite and supine : as, 
aresco, to become dry. But these verbs borrow the preterite 
and supine from their primitives; as, ardesco, to grow hot, 
arsi, arsum, from ardeo. 

DO has di, sum ; as, 
Scando, scandi, scansum, to climb ; edo, edi, esam, to eat. 
So, 

Ascendo, to mount Cudo, to forge, to stamp, Mando, to chew ; Prae-, re- 

Descendo, to go down. or coin ; Ex-, in-, per-, mando. 

Con-, e-, ex-, in-, trans- pro-, re-ciido. Prehendo, to take hold of; 

cendo. Defendo, to defend. Ap'-, com-, de-prehen- 

Accendo, to kindle: In-, Offendo, to strike against, do. 

succendo. to offend, to find. 

Exc. 1. Divxdo, divisi, divisum, to divide. 

Rado, rdsi, rdsum, to shave. So ab-, circum-, cor-, de-, e-, 
inter-, pi*ce-, sub-rado. 

Claudo, clausi, clausum, to close. So circum-, con-, dis- 9 
ex-, in-, inter-, pr&-, re-, se-cludo. 

Plaudo, plausi, plausum, to clap hands for joy. So ap-, 
circum-plaudo : also com-, dis-, ex-, sup-plodo, -plosi-, -plosunu 

Litdo, lilsi, lusum, to play. So ab-, ah, col-, de-, e-, il- 9 
inter-, ob-, prce-, pro-, re-ludo* 

Trudo, trusi, trusum, to thrust. So abs-, con-, de-, ex-, 
in-, ob-, pro-, re-triido. 

Lcedo, Icesiy Icesum, to hurt. So al-, col-, e-, il-lido, 4isi r 
Jisunu 



104 PRETERITES AND SUPINES, [cONJUG. 3. 

Rodo, rosi, rosum, to gnaw. So ab-, ar-, circum-, cor-, de-, 
€-, ob-, per-, prce-rodo. 

Vddo, to go, wants both preterite and supine ; but its com- 
pounds have si, sum ; as, invddd, invdsi, invdsum, to invade, 
or fall upon. So circum-, e-, super-vddo. 

Cedo, cessi, cessum, to yield. So abs-, ac-, ante-, con-, de-, 
dis-, ex-, in-, inter-, prce-, pro-, re-, retro-, se-, suc-cedo. 

Exc. 2. Pando, pandi, passum, and sometimes pansum, to 
open, to spread. So dis-, ex-, op-, prce-, re-pando. 

Comedo, comedi, comesum, or comestum, to eat. But edo 
itself, and the rest of its compounds, have always esum; as, 
ad-, amb-, ex-, per-, sub-, super-edo, -edi, -esum. 

Fundo, fudi, fusum, to pour forth. So af, circum-, con-, 
de-, dif-, ef-, in-, inter-, of-, per-, pro-, re-, suf-, super-, su» 
perin-, trans-fundo. 

Scindo, scldi, scissum, to cut. So as-, circum-, con-, ex-, 
inter-, per-, prce-, pro-, re-, tran-scindo. 

Findo, fidi, fissum, to cleave. So con-, dif-, in-findo. 

Exc. 3. Tundo, tutudi, tunsum, and sometimes tusum, to 
beat. The compounds have tudi, tusum ; as, contundo, con- 
tudi, contiisum,, to bruise. So ex-, ob-, per-, re-tundo. 

Cddo, cecidi, cdsum, to fall. The compounds want the su- 
pine ; as, ac-, con-, de-, ex-, inter-, pro-, suc-cido, -cidi,- ■; 

except, incidio, incidi, incdsum, to fall in ; recido, recidi, re* 
cdsum, to fall back; and occido, occxdi, occdsum, to fall 
down. 

Ccedo, cecidi, ccesum, to cut, to kill. The compounds 
change ce into i long; as, accido, accldi, acclsum, to cut 
about. So abs-, con-, circum-, de-, ex-, in-, inter-, oc-, per-, 
prce-, re-, suc-cido. 

Tendo, tetendi, tensum, or tentum, to stretch out. So at-, con-, 
de-, dis-, ex-, ob-, prce-, pro-tendo, -tendi, -tensum or tentum. 
But the compounds have rather tentum, except ostendo, to 
show ; which has commonly ostensum. 

j£ Pedo, pepedi, peditum, to break wind backward. So op- 
pedo. 

Pendo, pependi, pensum, to weigh. So ap-, de-, dis-, ex-, 
im-, per-, re-, sus-pendo, -pendi, -pensum. 

Exc. 4. The compounds of do have didi, and ditum; as, 
abdo, abdidi, abditum, to hide. So ad-, con-, de-, di-, e-, ob-, 
per-, pro-, red-, sub-trado : also decon-, recon-do, and coad-, 
superad-do ; and deper-, disper-do. To these add credo, 
credidi, creditum, to believe ; vendo, vendidi, venditum, to 
sell. Abscondo, to hide, has abscondi, absconditum, rarely 
abscondidu 



CONJUG. 3.] PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 105 

Exc. 5. These three want the supine: strido, strldi, to 
creak ; rudo, rudi, to bray like an ass ; and sido, sidi, to sink 
down. The compounds of sido borrow the preterite and su- 
pine from sedeo ; as, consido, consedi, consessum, to sit down. 
So as-, circum-, de-, in-, ob-, per-, re-, sub-sido. 

Note. Several compounds of verbs in do and deo, in some 
respects resemble one another, and therefore should be care- 
fully distinguished; as, concido, concedo, concido ; consido 
and consideo ; conscindo, conscendo, fyc. 

GO, GUO, has xi, ctiim; as, 

Rego, rexi, rectum, to rule, to govern ; dirigo, -exi, -ectum, 
to direct ; arigo, fy erigo, -exi, -ectum, to raise up ; corrigo, 
to correct ; porrigo, to stretch out ,* subrigo, to raise up. So, 

Fllgo, to dash or beat upon : Af-, con-, Emungo, to wipe, to cheat 
in-fligo ; also profligo, to rout, of the Stingo, or Stinguo, to dash out, to extin- 
first conj. guish : Di-, ex-, in-, inter-, prae-, re- 

Lingo, to lick : de-, e-lihgo, & pollingo, stinguo. 

to anoint a dead body. Ungo, or Unguo, to anoint : Ex-, in-, 

Mungo, to wipe, or clean the nose. per-, super-ungo, &c. 

Exc. 1. Surgo, to rise, has surrexi, surrectum. So as-* 
circum-, con-, de-, ex-, in-, re-surgo. 

Per go, porrexi, perrectum, to go forward. - " 

Stringo, strinxi, strictum, to bind, to strain, to lop. So ad* % 
con-, de-, dis-, ob-, per-, prce-, re-, sub-stringo* 

Fingo, finxi, Jictum, to feign. So af, con-, ef-, re-jingo* 

Pingo, pinxi, pictum, to paint. So ap-, de-pingo. 

Exc. 2. Frango, fregi, fractum, to break. So con-, de- y 
dif-, ef-, in-, per-, prce-, re-, suffringo, -fregi, fractum. 

Ago, egi, actum, to do, to drive. So ab-, ad-, ex-, red-, sub- y 
trans-, transad-igo and circum-, per -ago : cogo, for coago, 
coegi, coactum, to bring together, to force. 

These three compounds of ago want the supine : sdtdgo % 
sategi, to be busy about a thing ; prodigo, prodegi, to lavish, 
or spend riotously ; dego, for dedgo ; degi, to live or dwell. 
Ambigo, to doubt, to dispute, also wants the preterite. 

Lego, legi, tectum, to gather, to read. So al-, per-, prce-, 
re-, sub-lego : also col-, de-, e», recoh, se-ligo, which change e 
into %. 

Diligo, to love, has dilexi, dilectum. So negligo, to neg- 
lect ; and intelligo, to understand ; but negligo has sometimes 
ntglegi, Sail. Jug. 40. 

Exc. 3. Tango, tetigi, tactum, to touch. So at-, con-, oh y 
per-tingo ; thus, attingo, attigi, attactum, &c. 
Pungo, pupugi, punctum, to prick or sting. The compounds 



106 PRETERITES AND SUPINES. [cONJUG. 3. 

have punxi ; as, compungo, compunxi, compunctum. So dis-, 
ex-, inter-pungo : but repungo has repunxi, or repupiigi. 

Pango, panxi, pactum, to fix, to drive in, to compose; or 
pepigi, which comes from the obsolete verb pago, to bargain, 
for which we use paciscor. The compounds of pango have 
pegi ; as, compingo, compegi, compactum, to put together. So 
im-, ob-, sup-pingo. 

Exc. 4. Spargo, sparsi, sparsum, to spread. So ad-, cir- 
cum-, con-, di-, in-, inter,-, per-, pro-, re-spergo. 

Mergo, mersi, mersum, to dip or plunge. So de-, e-, im-, 
sub-mergo. 

Tergo,tersi, tersum, to wipe or clean. So abs-, de-, ex-, 
per-tergo. 

Figo, fixi, jlxum, to fix or fasten. So of-, con-, de-, in-, 
of-, per-, prce-, re-, suf-, trans-figo. 

Frigo, frixi, frixum, oxfrictum, to fry. 

Exc. 5. These three want the supine: clango, clanxi, to 
sound a trumpet; ningo, or ninguo, ninxi, to snow; ango, 
anxi, to vex. Vergo, to incline, or lie outwards, wants both 
preterite and supine. So e-, de-, in-vergo. 

"~~ HO, JO. 

1. Traho, traxi, tractum, to draw. So abs-, at-, circum-^ 
con-, de-, dis-, ex-, per-, pro-, re-, sub-traho. 

Veho, vexi, vectum, to carry. So a-, ad-, circum-, con-, 
di-, e-, in-, per-, prce-, prceter-, pro-, re-, sub-, super-, trans* 
veho. 

2. Mejo, or mingo, minxi, mictum, to make water. So im* 
mejo. 

LO. 

1. Colo, colui, cultum, to adorn, to inhabit, to honor, to 
till. So ac-, circum-, ex-, in-, per-, prce-, re-colo : and like- 
wise occulo, occului, occultum, to hide. 

Consulo, consului, consultum, to advise or consult. 

Alo, alui, alitum, or contracted, altum, to nourish. 

Molo, molui, molitum, to grind. So com-, e-, per-molo. The 
compounds of cello, which itself is not in use, want the su* 
pine ; as, ante-, ex-, prce-cello, -cellui, to excel. * Percello, to 
strike, to astonish, has per culi, per culsum. 

Pello, pZpuli, pulsum, to thrust. So ap-, as-, com-, de«, 
dis-, ex-, im-, per-, pro-, re-pello ; appuli, appulsum, &c. 

Fallo, fefelli, falsum, to deceive. But refello, refelli, to 
Confute, wants the supine. 

3. Velio, velli, or vulsi, vulsum, to pull or pinch. So, a-, 



p 

€0NJT7G. 3.] PRETERITES AND SUPINES. 107 

con-, 6-, inter-, prce-, re-vello. But tfe-, di-, per-vello, have 
rather t?eZZi. 

Sallo, salli, salsum, to salt. Psallo, psalli, to play 

on a musical instrument, wants the supine. 

Tollo, to lift up, to take away, in a manner peculiar to it- 
self, makes sustuli, and sublatum ; extollo, extiili, datum ; but 
attollo, to take up, has neither preterite nor supine. 

MO has ui, iturn; as, 

Gemo, gemui, gemitum, to groan. So ad-, or ag-, circum-, 
con-, in-, re-gemo. 

Fremo, fremui, fremitum, to rage or roar, to make a great 
noise. So a/*-, circum-, con-, in-, per-fremo. 

Vomo, evomo, -ui, -itum, to vomit, or spew, to cast up. 

Exc. 1. Demo, dempsi, demptum, to take away. 

Promo, prompsi, promptum, to bring out. So de-, ex- 
promo. 

Sumo, sumpsi, sumptum, to take. So ah-, as-, con-, de-, in- 9 
prce-, re-, tran-sumo. 

Como, compsi, comptum, to deck or dress. 

These verbs are also used without the p ; as, demsi, dem- 
turn; sumsi, sumtum, &c. 

Exc. 2. Emo, emi, emptum or emtum, to buy. So ad-, dir-, 
ex-, inter-, per-, red-imo and co-emo, -emi, emptum or emtum, 

Premo, pressi, pressum, to press. So ap-, com-, de-, ex-, 
im-, op-, per-, re-, sup-primo. 

Tremo, tremui^ to tremble, to quake for fear, wants the su- 
pine. So at-, circum-, con-, in-tremo. 

NO. 

1. Pono, posui, positum, to put, or place. So ap-, ante-, 
circum-, com-, de-, dis-, ex-, im-, inter-, 6b-, post-, prce-, pro-, 
re-, se-, sup-, super-, superim-, trans-pono. 

Gigno, genui, genitum, to beget. So con-, e-, in-, per-, pro-, 
re-gigno. 

Cdno, cecini, cantum, to sing. But the compounds have 
cinui and centum; as, accino, accinui, accentum, to sing in 
concert. So con-, in-, prce-, suc-cmo ; oc-cino and oc-cdno ; 
re-cino and re-cdno. But occanui, recanui, are not in use. 

Temno, to despise, wants both preterite and supine ; but its 
compound contemno, to despise, to scorn, has contempsi, con- 
temptum ; or without the p, contemsi, contemtum. 

2. Sperno, sprevi, spretum, to disdain or slight. So de- 
sperno. 



108 PRETERITES AND SUPINES. [cONJUG. 3. 

Sterno, stravi, stratum, to lay flat, to strow. So ad-, con; 
in-, prce-, pro-, sub-sterno. 

Sino, sivi, or sii, situm, to permit. So desino, desivi, of- 
tener, desii, desttum, to leave off. 

Lino, livi, or levi, Utum, to anoint or daub. So ah, circum; 
col-, de-, il-, inter-, ob-, per-, prce-, re-, sub-, subter-, super; 
superil-lino. 

Cerno, crevi, seldom cretum, to see, to decree, to enter 
upon an inheritance. So de-, dis-, ex-, in-, se-cerno. 

PO, QUO. 

Verbs in po have psi and ptum; as, Carpo, carpsi, carptum 9 
to pluck or pull, to crop, to blame. So con-, de-, dis-, ex-, 
prce-, -cerpo, -cerpsi, -cerptum. 

Clepo, -psi, -ptum, to steal. Scalpo, to scratch, or engrave. So cir- 

Repo, to creep : Ad-, v. ar-, cor-, de-, di-, cum-, ex-scalpo. 

e-, ir-, intro-, ob-, per-, pro-, sub-repo, Sculpo, to grave or carve. So ex-, ift- 

-psi, -ptum. sculpo. 

Serpo, to creep as a serpent. 

Exc. 1. Strepo, strepui, strepitum, to make a noise. So a#-, 
circum-, in-, inter-, ob-, per-strepo. 

Exc. 2. Rumpo, rupi, ruptum, to break. So ab-, cor-, di-, 
€-, inter-, intro-, ir-, ob-, per-, prcz-, pro-rumpo. 

There are only two simple verbs ending in QUO, viz. 

Coquo, coxi, coctum, to boil. So con-, de-, dis-, ex-, in-, 
per-, re-coquo. 

Linquo, Ixqui, , to leave. The compounds have lictum; 

as, relinquo, reliqui, relictum, to forsake. So de-, and dere~ 
linquo. 

RO. " 

1. Qucero makes quasivi, qucesitum, to seek. So ac-, an; 
con-, dis-, ex-, per-, re-quiro, -quisivi, -quisitum. 

Tero, trim, tritum, to wear, to bruise. So at-, con-, de-, dis; 
€X-, in-, ob-, per-, pro-, sub-tero. 

Verro, verri, versum, to sweep, brush, or make clean. So 
a-, con-, de-, e-, prce-, re-verro. 

Uro, ussi, ustum, to burn. So ad-,amb-, comb-, de-, ex-, %n; 
per-, sub-uro. 

Gero, gessi, gestum, to carry. So ag; con-, di-, in-, pro-, 
re-, sug-gero. 

2. Curro, cucurri, cursum, to run. So ac-, con-, de-, $s-, 
€X; in-, oc; per-, pra-, pro-curro, which sometimes double the 



tJONJUG. 3.] *RETERrTES AND SUPINES, 109 

first syllable, and sometimes not; as, accurri, or acciicurri, 
<&c. Circum-, re-, sue-, trans-curro, hardly ever redouble the 
first syllable, 

N 3. Sero, sevi, satum, to sow. The compounds which sig- 
nify planting or solving, have sevi, sttum ; as, consero, con- 
sevi, consitum, to plant together. So as-, circum-, de-, dis-, 
in-, inter-, ob-, pro-, re-, sub-, tran-sero. 

Sero, -, to knit, had anciently serui, sertum, which its 

compounds still retain ; as, assero^ asserui, assertum, to claim. 
So con-, circum*, de-, dis-, edis-, ex-, in-, inter-sero. 

4. Furo, to be mad, wants both preterite and supine. 

SO has sivi, situm; as, 

Arcesso, arcessivi, arcessitum, to call, or send for. So 
eapesso, to take ; fdcesso, to do, to go away; lavesso, to pro- 
voke. 

Exc. 1. Viso, vlsi, , to go to see, to visit. So in-, re* 

viso. Incesso, incessi, , to attack, to seize. 

Exc. 2. Depso, depsui, depstum, to knead. So con-, per- 
depso. 

Pinso, pinsui, or pinsi, pinsum, pzstum, or pimitum, to bake. 

TO. 

1. Flecto has flexi, fiexum, to bow. So circum-, de-, in- 7 
re-, retro-flecto. 

Plecto, plexi, and plexui, plexum, to plait. So implecto. 

Necto, nexi, and nexui, nexum, to tie or knit. So ad-, vel 
an-, con-, circum-, in-, sub-necto. 

Pecto, pexi, and pexui, pexum, to dress, or comb. So de-, 
ex-, re-pecto. 

2. Meto, messui, messum, to reap, mow, or cut down. So 
de-, e-, prce-meto. 

3. Peto, petivi, petitum, to seek, to pursue. So cup-, com-, 
ex-, im-, op-, re-, sup-peto. 

Mitto, misi, missum, to send. So a-, ad-, com-, circum-, de-, 
di-, e-, im-, inter-, intro-, o-, per-, prce-, prceter-, pro-, re-, sub-, 
super-, trans-mitto. 

Verto, verti, versum, to turn. So a-, ad-, animad-, ante-, 
circum-, con-, de-, di-, en-, in-, inter-, ob-, per-, prm-, prceter-, 
re-, sub-, trans-verto. 

Sterto, stertui, , to snore. So de-sterto* 

K 



HO PRETERITES AND SUPINES. [CONJUG. 4# 

4. Sisto, an active verb, to stop, has stiti, statum: but sisto, 
a neuter verb, to stand still, has steti, statum, like sto. The 
compounds have stiti, and stitum; as, assisto, astiti, astitum, 
to stand by. So ab-, circum-, con-, de-, ex-, in-, inter-, ob-, 
per-, re-, sub-sisto. But the compounds are seldom used in 
the supine. 

vo, xo. 

There are three verbs in vo, which are thus conjugated : 

1. Vivo, vixi, victum, to live. So ad-, con-, per-, pro-, re*, 
super-vivo. 

Solvo, solvi, solutiim, to loose. So absolvo, to acquit, dis-, 
ex-, per-, re-solvo. 

Volvo, volvi, volutum, to roll. So ad-, circum-, con-, de-, e>, 
in-, ob-, per-, pro-, re-, sub-volvo. 

2. Texo, to weave, (the only verb of this conjugation end- 
ing in xo) has texui, textum. So at-, circum-, con-, de-, in~, 
inter-, ob-, per-, prce-, pro-, re-, sub-texo. 

Fourth Conjugation* 

Verbs of the fourth conjugation make the preterite in ivi, 
and the supine in itum ; as, 

Munio, munivi, munltum, to fortify. So, 

Balbutio, to stammer, to Irretio, to ensnare. Rugio, to roar like a lion, 

lisp, to stutter. Ligurio, to eat deliriously, Sagio, praesagio, to guess, 

Crocio, to croak. to slabber up. to foresee. 

Effutio, to babble or blab Lippio, to be dim-sighted. Scaturio, to gush out 

out. Mutio, to mutter. Tussio, to cough. 

Glutio, to swallow. Pavio, to beat. Vagio, to cry or squeal as 

Hinnio, to neigh. Plpio, to peep as a chicken. a child, &c 

Exc. 1. Singultio, singtdtivi, singultum, to sob. 

Sepelio, sepelivi, sepultum, to bury. 

Venio, veni, ventum, to come. So ad-, ante-, circum-, con-, 
contra-, de-, e-, in-, inter-, intro-, ob-, per-, post-, prce-, re-, 
sub-, super -venio. 

Veneo, venii, , to be sold. 

Salio, salui, and salii, saltum, to leap. The compounds 
have commonly silui, sometimes silii, or silivi and sultum ; 
as, transilio, iransilui, transilii, and transilivi, transultum, to 
leap over. So, ab-, as-, circum-, con-, de-, dis-, ex-, in-, re-, 
sub-, super-silio. 

Exc. 2. Amicio has amicui, amictum, seldom amixi, to 
cover or clothe. 

Vincio, vinxi, vinctum, to tie. So circum-, de-, e-, re-xAncio* 



DEPONENT AND COMMON VERBS. Ill 

Sancio, sanxi, sanctum; and*sancivi, sancitum, to establish 
car ratify. 

Exc. 3. Cambio, campsi, campsum, to change money. 

Sepio, sepsi, septum, to hedge or inclose. So circum-, dis-, 
inter-, ob-, prce-sepio. 

Haurio, hausi, haustum, rarely hausum, to draw out, to 
empty, to drink. So de-, ex-haurio. 

. Sentio, sensi, sensum, to feel, to perceive, to think. So as-, 
con-, dis-, per-, prce-, sub-sentio. 

Raucio, rausi, rausum, to be hoarse. 

Exc. 4. Sarcio, sarsi, sartum, to mend or repair. So ex-, 
re-sarcio. 

Far do, far si, fartum, to cram. So con-fercio, ef-fercio, or 
ef-farcio ; in-fercio, or infarcio ; refercio. 

Fulcio, fulsi, fultum, to prop or uphold. So con-, ef, in-, 
per-, suf-fulcio. 

Exc. 5. The compounds of pdrio, have perui, pertum ; as, 
aperio, aperui, apertum, to open. So operio, to shut, to cover. 
But comperio has comperi, compertum, to know a thing for 
certain. Reperio, reperi, repertum, to find. 

Exc. 6. The following verbs want the supine. Ccecutio, 
ccecutivi, to be dim-sighted. Gestio, gestivi, to show one's 
joy by the gesture of his body. Glocio, glocivi, to cluck or 
cackle as a hen. Dementio, dementivi, to be mad. Ineptio, 
ineptivi, to play the fool. Prosilio, prosilui, to leap forth. 
Ferocio, ferocivi, to be fierce. 

Ferio, to strike, wants both preterite and supine. So re* 
ferio, to strike again. 

DEPONENT AND COMMON VERBS. 

A deponent verb is that which, under a passive form, has 
an active or neuter signification ; as, loquor, I speak ,• morior, 
I die. 

A common verb, under a passive form, has either an ac- 
tive or passive signification ; as, criminor, I accuse, or I am 
accused. 

Most deponent verbs of old, were the same with common 
verbs. They are called Deponent because they have laid 
aside the passive sense. 

Deponent and common verbs form the participle perfect 
and other parts, in the same manner as if they had the ac- 
tive voice; thus, Lcetor, Icetatus, Icetdri, to rejoice; vereor, 
veritus, vereri, to fear ; fungor, functus, fungi, to discharge 
an office ; potior, potitus, potiri, to enjoy, to be master of. 






112 



DEPONENT AN0 COMMON VERBS. 



Deponent verbs are Englished like active, but varied like 
passive verbs, except so far as tfiey assume parts of the active 
voice ; thus, 



Pres. India 
Laetor, 



Sing 



First Conjugation. 

Perfect Part 

laetatus, 

Indicative Mode. 
Present. 



Pres. Infiru 
laetari. 



1. Ego laetor, 

2. Tu laetares vel -are, 

3. Ille laetatur, 
Plur. 1. Nos laetamur, 

2. Vos laetammi, 
3 Illi laeiantur, 

Imperfect. 
Sing. 1. Ego laetabar, 

2. Tu laetabaris vel -bare, 

3. Ille laetabatur, 
Plur. 1 . Nos laetabamur, 

2. Vos laetabammi, 

3. Illi laetabantur, 

Perfeet 
Sing. 1. Ego laetatus sum vel fui,* 

2. Tu laetatus es vel fiiisti, 

3. Ille laetatus est vel fuit, 
Pfor. 1. Nos laetatisumus ve I fuimus, 

2. Vos laetati estis vel fuistis, 

& Illi laetati sunt, fuerunt veZ fuere, 

Pluperfect. 
Sing. I. Ego laetatus eram vel fueram, 

2. Tu laetatus eras, vel fueras, 

3. Ille laetatus erat vel fuerat, 
Plur. 1. Nos laetati eramus vel fueramus, 

2. Vos laetati eratis vel fueratis, 

3. Illi laetati erant vel fuerant, 

Future. 
Sing. J . Ego laetabor, 

2. Tu laetabefis vel -abere, 

3, Ille laetabitur, 
Plur. 1. Nos laetabimur, 

2. Vos laetabimmi, 

3. Illi laetabuntur, 
Laetaturus sum, lam about to rejoice, or lam to rejoice, &c* 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Present. 
Sing. ■ 1. Ego laeter, I may rejoice. 

2. Tu laeteris vel -ere, Thou mayest rejoice. . 

3. Ille laetetur, He may rejoice. 
Plur. 1. Nos laetemur, We way rejoice. 

2. Vos laetemini, Ye may rejoice. 

3. Illi laetentur, 7%ey may rejoice. 

* F«i, fueram, &c. are seldom joined to the particles of deponent verbs ; and not 
so often to those of passive verbs, as sum, eram, &e. 



I rejoice. 
Thou fejoicest. 
He rejoices. 
We rejoice. 
Ye rejoice. 
They rejoice. 

I rejoiced, or did rejoice. 

Thou rejoicedst. 

He did rejoice. 

We rejoiced. 

Ye rejoiced. 

They rejoiced. 

I have rejoiced. 
Thou hast rejoiced. 
He has rejoiced. 
We have rejoiced*. 
Ye have rejoiced. 
They have rejoiced. 

I had rejoiced. 
Thou hadst rejoiced. 
He had rejoiced. 
We had rejoiced. 
Ye had rejoiced. 
They had rejoiced. 

I shall or will rejoice* 
Thou shalt rejoice. 
He shall rejoice. 
We shall rejoice. 
Ye shall rejoice. 
They shall rejoice. 






DEPONENT AND COMMON VERBS. 



113 



Imperfect. 
Sing. 1. Ego laetarer, 

2. Tu laetareris vd -arere, 

3. Ille laetaretur, 
Plur. 1. Nos laetaremur, 

2. Vos laetaremini, 

3. Illi laetarentur, 

Perfect 
Sing. I. Ego laetatus sim vel fuerim, 

2. Tu laetatus sis vd fueris, 

3. Ille laetatus sit vd fuerit, 
Plur. 1. Nos laetati simul vel fuerimus, 

2. Vos laetati sitis vel fueritis, 

3. Illi laetati sint vd fuerint, 

Pluperfect 
Sing. 1. Ego laetatus essem vel fuissem, 

2. Tu laetatus esses vel fuisses, 

3. Ille laetatus esset vd fuissel, 
Plur. 1. Nos laetati essemus vel fuissemus, 

2. Vos laetati essetis vel fuissetis, 

3. Illi laetati essent vel fuissent, 



Future. 
Sing. 1. Ego laetatus fuero, 

2. Tu laetatus fueris, 

3. Ille laetatus fuerit, 
Plur. 1. Nos laetati fuerimus, 

2. Vos l3statHueritis, 

3. Illi laetati fuerint, 

Imperative. 
Sing. 2. Laetare vel laetator tu, 

3. Laetator ille, 
Plur. 2. Laetamini vos, 

3. Laetantor illi, 



Imigld rejoice. 
Thou mightest rejoice. 
He might rejoice. 
We might rejoice. 
Ye might rejoice. 
They might rejoice, 

I may have rejoiced. 
Thou mdyest have rejoiced* 
He may have rejoiced. 
We may have rejoiced. 
Ye may have rejoiced. 
They may have rejoiced. 

I might have rejoiced. 
Thou mightest have rejoiced. 
He might have rejoiced. 
We might have rejoiced. 
Ye might have rejoiced. 
They might have rejoiced. 

I shall or witl have rejoiced. 
Thou shalt have rejoiced. 
He shall have rejoiced. 
We shall have rejoiced. 
Ye shall have rejoiced. 
They shall have rejoiced* 

Rejoice thou. 
Let him rejoice. 
Rejoice ye. 
Let them rejoice. 



Infinitive. 
Pres. Laetari, to rejoice. 
Perf Laetatus esse vel fuisse, to have rejoiced^ 
Fut. Laetaturus esse, to be about to rejoice. 

Laetaturus fuisse, to have been about to rejoice. 



Pres. Laetans, rejoicing. 
Perf. Laetatus, having rejoiced. 
Fut. Laetaturus, about to rejoice. 
Laetandus, to be rejoiced at. 

Deponent verbs have usually the gerunds and supines: 
thus, tenor, to hunt, makes — 

Gerunds. __ Supines. 

Nom. Venandum, hunting. Ace. Venandum, hunting. 
Gen. Venandi, of hunting. Abl. Venando, with or by 
Bat. Venando, to hunting. hunting. 



1. Venaturn, to hunt. 

2. Venatu, to hunt or to 

be hunted. 



In like manner conjugate in the First Conjugation, 

Abominor, to abhor. AprTcor, to bask in the sun. Cauponor, to huckster, to 

^Emulor, to vie wilh y to Bacchor, to rage, to revel, retail, 
envy. to riot. * Coraessor, to revel 

k2 



114 



DEPONENT VERBS. 



Detestor, to abhor. 
Dominor, to rule. 
Epulor, to feast. 
Execror, to curse. 
Famiilor, to serve. 
Ferior, to keep holy-day. 
Frustror, to disappoint 
Furor, to steal. 
Glorior, to boast. 
Gravor, to grudge. 
Haridlor, to conjecture. 
Helluor, to guttle or gor- 
mandize, to waste. 



Imaginor, to conceive. 
Inf icior, to deny. 
Jaculor, to dart. 
Jocor, to jest. 
I/ucror, to gain. 
Luctor, to wrestle. 
Medicor, to cure. 
Miseror, to pity. 
Nugor, to trifle. 
OdGror, to smell. 
Osciilor, to kiss. 
Palor, to stroll or strag- 
gle, t 



Palpor, or -o, to stroke or 

soothe. 
Recordor, to remember. 
Rixor, to scold or brawl. 
Scrutor, to search. 
Suavior, to kiss. 
Tergiversor, to boggle, to 

put off. 
Tutor, to defend. 
Vador, to give bail, to force 

to give bail. 
Veneror, to worship. 
Venor, to hunt, &c, 



SYNOPSIS OF THE MODES AND TENSES OF DEPONENT EXAMPLES 



Pres. 
Imp. 
Perf. 



Pres. Indie. 
Mereor, 

Indicative. 
mereor. 
merebar. 
meritus sum 
vel fui. 
Pluperf. meritus eram 
vel fueram. 
Fut merebor. 



Pres. Indie. 
Queror, 

Indicative. 
queror. 
querebar. 
questus sum 
vel fui. 
Pluperf. questus eram 
vel fueram. 
Fut, querar. 



IN THE OTHER CONJUGATIONS. 

Second Conjugation. 
Perf. Part. Pres. Infin. 
mereri, 



Pres. 
Imp. 
Perf 



Pres. Indie. 
" Largior, 
Indicative. 
largior. 
largiebar. 
largitus sum 
vel fui. 
Pluperf. largitus eram 
vel fueram. 
Fut iargiar. 



Pres. 
Imp. 
Perf 



meritus, 

Subjunctive. 
merear. 
mererer. 
meritus sim 

vel fuerim. 
meritus essem 

vel fuissem. 
meritus fuero. 



Imperative. 
rrferere vel meretor. 

Infinitive. 
Pres. mereri. 
Perf. meritus esse 

vel fuisse. 
Fut. meritiirus esse 
vel fuisse. 



To gain. 

Participles. 
Pres. merens. 
Perf meritus. 
Fut. meritiirus. 
merendus. 
Gerunds. 
merendiim, -di,-do. 
Supines. 

1. merit um. 

2. meritu. 



Third Conjugation. 
Perf Part. Pres. Infin. 



questus, 

Subjunctive. 
querar. 
quererer. 
questus sim vel 

fuerim. 
questus essem 

vel fuissem. 
questus fuero. 



To 



queri, 

Imperative. 
querere vel queritor. 

Infinitive. 
Pres. queri. 
Perf. questus esse 

vel fuisse. 
Fut. questurus esse 
vel fuisse. 



complain. 

Participles. 
Pres. querens. 
Perf questus. 
Fut. questurus. 
querendus, 
Gerunds. 
querend um-di-do. 
Supines. 

1. questum. 

2. questu. 



Fourth Conjugation. 
Perf Part. Pres. Infin. 



largitus, 
Subjunctive. 
Iargiar. 
largirer. 
largitus sim vel 

fuerim. 
largitus essem 
vel fuissem. 
largitus fuero. 



largiri, 
Imperative. 
largire vel largltor. 

Infinitive. 
Pres. largiri. 
Perf largitus ess 

vel fuisse. 
Fut. larglturus ea 
vel fuisse. 



To bestow. 

Participles. 
Pres. largiens. 
Perf largitus. 
Fut. larglturus. 
largiendus* 
Gerunds. 
largiendum-di-do* 
Supines. 

1. largitum. 

2. largitu* 



DEPONENT VERBS. 115 

In the Second Conjugation. 

Mereor, meritus, to deserve. \ Polliceor, pollicitus, to promise. 

Tueor, tuitus, or tutus, to defend. Liceor, licitus, to bid at an auction. 

In the Third Conjugation. 

Amplector, amplexus ; and complector, complexus, to embrace. 
Revertor, re versus, to return. 

In the Fourth Conjugation. 

Blandior, to soothe, to flatter. Partior, to divide. 

Mentior, to lie. Sortior, to draw or cast lots, 

Molior, to attempt something difficult. Largior, to give liberally. 

. Part. perf. Blandltus, menfitus, molitus, pardlus] sortiius, largtius. 

There are no exceptions in the First Conjugation. 
EXCEPTIONS in the Second Conjugation. 

Reor, ratus, to think. 

Misereor, misertus, or not contracted, miseritus, to pity. 

Fdteor, fassus, to confess. The compounds of fdteor have 
fessus; as, profiteor, professus, to profess. So confiteor, to 
confess, to own or acknowledge. 

EXCEPTIONS in the Third Conjugation. 

Labor, lapsus, to slide. So ah, col-, de-, di-, e-, ih, inter-, 
per-, prceter-, pro-, re-, sub-, subter-, super-, trans-labor. 

Ulciscor, ultus, to revenge. 

JJtor, usus, to use. So ab-, de-utor. 

Loquor, loquutus, or locutus, to speak. So ah, col-, circum-, 
e-, inter-, ob-, prce-, pro-loquor. 

Sequor, sequutus or secutus, to follow. So as-, con-, ex-, in-, 
ob-, per-, pro-, re-, sub-sequor. 

Queror, jquestus, to complain. So con-, inter-, prce-queror. 

Nltor, nlsus, or nixus, to endeavor, to lean upon. So ad-, 
?vel an-, con-, e-, in-, ob-, re-, sub -nltor : but the compounds 
have oftener nixus. 

Pdciscor, pactus, to bargain. So de-peciscor, or de-pa- 
ciscor. 

Grddior, gressus, to go. So ag-, ante-, circum-, con-, de-, 
di-, e-, in-, intro-, pr&-, prater-, pro-, re-, retro-, sug-, super-, 
trans-gredior. 

Proficiscor, profectus, to go a journey. 

Nanciscor, nactus, to get. 

Potior, passus, to suffer. So per-petior. 

Apiscor, aptus, to get. So adipiscor, adeptus, and ind\* 
piscor, indeptus. 

Comminiscor, commentus, to devise or invent. 



116 DEPONENT VERBS. 

Fruor,fruitus, or fructus, to enjoy. So per-fruor, 

Obllviscor, oblitus, to forget. 

Expergiscor, experrectus, to awake. 

Morior, mortuus, to die. So com-, de-, e-, im-, inter-, prce* 
morior. 

Nascor, natus, to be born. So ad-, circum-, de-, e-, in*, 
inter-, re-, sub-nascor. 

Orior, ortus, brlri, to rise. So ab-, ad-, co-, ex-, ob-, sub- 
orior. 

The three last form the future participle in iturus ; thus, 
moriturus, nascititrus, oriturus. 

EXCEPTIONS in the Fourth Conjugation. 

Metior, mensus, to measure. So ad-, com-, di-, e-, pra-, 
re-metior. 

Ordior, orsus, to begin. So ex-, red-ordior. 

Experior, expertus, to try. 

Opperior, oppertus, and -itus, to wait or tarry for one. 

The following verbs want the participle perfect : 

Vescor, vesci, to feed. Praevertor, praeverti, to get before, to 

Liquor, liqui, to melt or be dissolved. outrun. 

Medeor, mederi, to heal. Diffiteor, diff iteri, to deny. 

RemTniscor, reminisei, to remember. Divertor, diverti, to turn aside, to take 

Irascor, irasci, to be angry. lodging. 

Ringor, ringi, to grin like a dog. Defe tiscor, def etisci, to be weary, to faint. 

The verbs which do not fall under any of the foregoing 
rules are called Irregular* 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

The Irregular verbs are commonly reckoned eight ; sum, eo, 
queo, volo, nolo, mdlo,fero, and flo, with their compounds. 

But properly there are only six; nolo and malo being compounds of volo. 

SUM has already been conjugated. After the same manner are formed its 
compounds, ad-, ab-, de-, inter-, pra-, ob-, sub-, super-sum, and insum, which wants 
the preterite; thus, adsum, adfui, adesse, &c. 

PRO SUM, to do good, has a d where sum begins withe; 
and in those parts is thus declined : 

Indicative Mode. 
Present. Imperfect. 

Sing. 1. Ego prGsum, I do good. Sing. 1. Prod-eram, I did good. 

2. Tu prod-es, thou doest good. 2. Prod-eras, thou didst good. 

3. Ille prOd-est, he does good. 3. Prod-erat, he did good. 

Plur. 1. Nos pro-sumus, we do good. Plur. 1. Prod-eram us, we did good, 

2. Vos prod-estis, ye do good.. 2. Prod-eratis, ye did good. 

3. Illi pro-sunt, they do good. 3. Prod-erant, they did good.. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



117 



Subjunctive Mode. 

Imperfect. 
Sing. Plur. 

1. Prod-essem, I might do good. 1. Prod-essemus, we might do good. 

2. Prod -esses, thou mightest do good. 2. Prod-essetis, ye might do good. 

3. PrGd-esset, he might do good. 3. Prod essent, they might do good. 

Imperative. 
Sijig. Plur. 

2. Prod-es vel prGd-esto, do thou good. 2. Prod-este vel prGd-estoie, do ye good, 

3. Prod-esto, let him do good. 3. Pro-sunto, let them do good. 

Infinitive. 
Pres. Prod -esse, to do good. 
Per/. Profuisse, to have done good. 
Put. Esse-profuturus, to be about to do good. 

Fuisse-profuturus, to have been about to do good. 

In the other parts it is like sum : Pro-sim, -sis, &c. Pro- 
fui, -fueram, &c. 

POSSUM is compounded of potis, able, and sunt; and is 
thus conjugated : 



Indicative Mode. 



Pr. Possum, 
hn. Pot-eram, 

Per, Pot-ui, 



potes, potest; 
-eras, -erat ,• 

-uisti, -uit; 



Plu. Pot-ueram, -ueras, -uerat ; 
Fut. Pot-ero, -oris, -erit; 



possumus, potestis, possunt, 

-eramus, -eratis, -erant. 
-uerunt, 
-uere. 

-ueramus, -ueratis* -uerant. 

-erimus, -eritis, -erunt. 



-uimus, -uistis, 



Subjunctive Mode, 

Pr* Pos-sim, -sis, -sit; -simus, -sitis, -sint. 
Im. Pos-sem, -ses, -set; -semus, -setis, -sent. 
Per. Pot-uerim, -ueris, -uerit; -uerimus, -ueritis, -uerint* 
Plu, Pot-uissem, -uisses, -uisset ; -uissemus, -uissetis, -uissent. 
Fut, Pot-uero, -ueris, -uerit ; -uerimus, -ueritis, -uerint. 



Pres* 



Infinitive, 
Posse. Per, Potuisse. 



The rest wanting* 



EO, ivi, ltum, ire, To go. 



Indicative Mode. 
Pr. Eo, is, it; imus, itis, eunt. 
Imp. Ibam, , ibas, ibat ; ibamus, ibatis, ibant. 
Per. Ivi, ivisti, ivit ; ivimus, ivistis, iverunt, ivere. 
Plu. Iveram, iveras, iverat ; iveramus, iveratis, iverant. 
Fut. Ibo, ibis, ibit ; ibimus, ibitis, ibunt. 



118 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



Pr. Earn, eas, eat; eamus, 

Im. Irem, Ires, iret; iremus, 

Per. Iverim, iveris, iverit ; iverimus, 

Plu. Ivissem, ivisses, ivisset; ivissemus, 



eatis, 



eant. 

irent. 
iveritis, iverint. 
ivissetis, ivissent. 



iretis. 



Fut. Ivero, iveris, iverit ; iverimus, iveritis, iverint. 



Pres. 



Imperative. 



Infinitive. 
Pres. Ire. 



Ito, * ° ' I itote, ' Perf. Ivisse. 



Fut. Esse iturus, -a, -urn. 
Fuisse iturus. 



Participles. 
Pr. lens, Gen. euntis. 
Fut. Iturus, -a, -um. 



Gerunds. 
Eundum. 
Eundi. 
Eundo, &c. 



Supines. 

1. Itum. 

2. Itu. 



The compounds of eo are conjugated after the same man- 
ner; ad-, db-, ex-, db-, red-, sub-, per-, co-, m-, prce-, ante-, 
prod-eo ; only in the perfect, and the tenses formed from it, 
they are usually contracted ; thus, Adeo, adsi, seldom adivi, 
aditum, adire, to go to; perf. Adii, adiisti, or adisti, &c. 

adieram, adierim, &c. So likewise veneo, venii, , to 

be sold, (compounded of venum and eo.) But ambio, -ivi, 
-itum, -ire, to surround, is a regular verb of the fourth con- 
jugation. 

Eo, like other neuter verbs, is often rendered in English 
under a passive form ; thus, it, he is going ; ivit, he is gone ; 
iverat, he was gone ; iverit, he may be gone, or shall be gone. 
So venit, he is coming ; venit, he is come ; venerat, he was 
come, &c. In the passive voice these verbs for the most part 
are only used impersonally ; as itur ab* illo, he is going ; 
ventum est ab illis, they are come. We find some of the 
compounds of eo, however, used personally ; as, pericula ade- 
untur, are undergone, Cic. Libri sibyllini aditi sunt, were 
looked into, Li v. Flumen pedibus transiri potest, Caes. Ini- 
micitice subeantur, Cic. 

QUEO, I can, and NEQUEO, I cannot, are conjugated the 
same way as eo; only they want the imperative and the 
gerunds ; and the participles are seldom used. 



* Itur, ibatur, itum est, itum erat, ibitur ; Subj. eatur, ireUir, itum sit, itum esset x 
itvmfucrit; Infin. in, itum esse, &c. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 119 

VOLO, volui, velle, To will, or to be willing. 

Indicative Mode. 

Pr. Vol-o, vis, vult; volumus, vultis, volunt. 

Im. Vol-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 

Per. Vol-ui, -uisti, -uit ; -uimus, -uistis, -uerunt, -uere* 

PI. Vol-ueram, -ueras, -uerat; -ueramus, -ueratis, -uerant. 

Fut. Vol-am, -es, -et; -emus, -etis, -ent. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Pr. Velim, velis, velit; velimus, velltis, velint. 

Imp. Vellem, velles, vellet ; vellemus, velletis, vellent, 
Per. Vol-uerim, -ueris, -uerit ; -uerimus, -ueritis, -uerint. 
Plu. Vol-uissem, -uisses, -uisset ; -uissemus, -uissetis, -uissent. 
Fut. Vol-uero, -ueris, -uerit ; -uerimus, -ueritis, -uerint 

Infinitive. Participle. 

Pres. Velle. Perf. Voluisse. Pres. Volens. 

The rest not used. 

NOLO, nolui, nolle, To be unwilling. 

Indicative Mode. 

Pr. Nolo, non-vis, non -vult; nolumus, non-vultis, nolunt. 

Im. Nol-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 

Per. Nol-ui, -uisti, -uit; -uimus, -uistis, - ueru nt, 

' -uere. 

Plu. Nol-ueram, -ueras, -uerat ; -ueramus,-ueratis, -tierant. 

Fut. Nolam, noles, nolet ; nolemus, noletis, nolent. 

Subjunctive Mode, 

Pr. Nolim, nolis, nolit; nolimus, nolitis, nolint. 
Im. Nollem, nolles, nollet; nollemus, nolletis, nollent. 
Per. Nol-uerim, -ueris, -uerit; -uerimus, -ueritis, -uerint. 
Plu. Nol-uissem, -uisses, -uisset ; -uissemus, -uissetis, -uissent. 
.Fw*. Nol-uero, -ueris, -uerit; -uerimus, -ueritis, -uerint. 

Imperative. Infinitive. Participle. 

2. Sing. 2. Plur. 

p i Noli, vel i nolite, vel Pr. Nolle. Pr. Nolens. 

r ' ( Nolito ; l nolitote. Per. Noluisse. The rest wanting. 



120 IRREGULAR VERBS. 

f 

MALO, malui, malle, To be more willing* 

Indicative Mode. 

Pr. Mal-o, mavis, mavult ; malumus, mavultis, malunt* 

Im. Mal-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant, 

Per. Mal-ui, -uisti, -uit : -uimus, -uistis, " uerun > 

' ' -uere. 

Plu. Mal-ueram, -ueras, -uerat ; -ueramus, -ueratis, -uerant. 

Put. Mal-am, -es, -et ; 6$c. this is scarcely in use. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Pr. Malim, malis, malit; malimus, malitis, malint. 

Im. Mallem* malles, mallet ; mallemus, malletis, mallent. 
Per. Mal-uerim, -ueris, -uerit ; -uerimus, -ueritis, -uerint. 
Plu. Mal-uissem, -uisses, -uisset ; -uissemus, -uissetis, -uissent. 
Fut. Mal-uero, -ueris, -uerit ; -uerimus, -ueritis, -uerint. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Pres. Malle. Perf. Maluisse. The rest not used. 

FERO, tili, latum, ferre, To carry, to bring or suffer. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. 

Pr. Fero, fers, fert; ferimus, fertis, ferunt. 

Im. Fer-ebam, -ebas, -ebat; -ebamus, -ebatis, -ebant. 

Per. Tuli, tulisti, tulit ; tulimus, tulistis, tulerunt, -ere. 

Plu. Tul-eram, -eras, -erat ; -eramus, -eratis, -erant. 

Fut. Feram, feres, feret ; -feremus, feretis, ferent. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

,Pr. Feram, feras, ferat; feramus, feratis, ferant. 

Im. Ferrem, ferres, ferret; ferremus, ferretis, ferrent* 

Per. Tul-erim, -eris, -erit ; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

Plu. Tul-issem, -isses, -isset ; -issemus, -issetis, -issent. 

Fut. Tul-ero, -eris, -erit ; -erimus, -eritis, -erint. 

Imperative. Infinitive. 

t>„ < Fer, r , $ ferte, ^ , Pr. Ferre. 
Pr - I Ferto, fert °; J fertote, ferunto - Per. Tulisse.' 

Fut. Esse laturus, -a, -urn* 
\ Fuisse laturus, -a, -um. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Participles. 
Pres. Ferens, 
FuU Laturus, -a, -um. 



Gerunds. 
Ferendum. 
Ferendi. 
Ferendo, &c. 



" 



121 



Supines. 

1. Latum. 

2. Latu. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 

Feror, latus, ferri, To be brought. 
Indicative Mode. 
Pr. Feror, ^YJrre, fertur; ferimur, ferimini, feruntur. 

Irtu Ferebar, ^ .^re, -ebatur; -ebamur, -ebamini, -ebantur. 
Perf. Latus sum, &c. latus fui, &c. 
Plu. Latus eram, &c. latus fueram, &c. 

Fut. Ferar, v J^erlre, feretur J feremur, feremini, ferentur. 



Subjunctive Mode. 



Pr. Ferar, , 



feraris, 
' vel ferare, 

** Ferrer, Jf-^ 
Per. Latus sim, &c. latus fuerim, &c. 
Plu. Latus essem, &c. latus fuissem, &c 
Fut. Latus fuero, &c. 



feratur ; 
ferretur ; 



feramur, 
ferreraur, 



feramini, 
feremini, 



ferantur. 
ferrentur. 



Participles. 
Perf. Latus, -a, -um. 
Fut. Ferendus, -a, -um. 



Imperative Mode. 

Pres. Ferre vel fertor, fertor ; ferimini, feruntor. 

Infinitive. 
Pres. Ferri. 

Perf. Esse vel fuisse, latus, -a, -um 
Fut. Latum iri. 

In like manner are conjugated the compounds of fero ; as, affero, attuli, alia- 
turn ; aitfero, absluli, ablatum ; differo, distuli, dilatum ; confero, contuli, colla- 
tum; infero, intuli, illatum; offero, obtuli, oblatum; effero, extuli, datum. .So 
circum-, per-, trans-, de-, pro-, ante-, pra-fero. In some writers we find, adfero, 
adtuli, aalatum ; conlatum, inlatum ; obfero, &c. for offero, &c. 

Obs. 1. Most part of the above verbs are made irregular 
by contraction. Thus, nolo is contracted for non volo; malo, 
for magis volo : fero,fers,fert, &c. for feris, ferity &c. Feror, 
ferris, v. ferre, fertur, for fereris, &c. 

Obs. 2. The imperatives of dico, duco, and fdcio, are con- 
tracted in the same manner with fer ; thus we say, die, due, 
fac, instead of dice, duce,face. But these often occur like- 
wise in the regular form. 



122 IRREGULAR VERBS* 

FIG, factus, fieri, to be made or done, to become* 

Indicative Mode* 

Pr. Flo, fis, fit; fimus, litis, Hunt. 

Im. Fiebam, iiebas, fiebat ; fiebamus, fiebatis, fiebank 

Per. Factus, sum, &c. factus fui, &c. 

Plu. Factus eram, &c. factus fuerarn, &c. 

Fut. Fiam, lies, fiet; fiemus, -fietis, fient. 

Subjunctive Mode. 
Pr. Fiam, lias, fiat; liamus, fiatis, fiant. 
Im. Fierem, fieres, fieret; fieremus, fieretis, fierent. 
Per. Factus sim, &c. factus fuerim, &c. 
Plu. Factus essem, &c. factus fuerim, &c. 
Fut. Factus fuero, &c. 

Imperative. Infinitive. 

p $ Fi, ~ i lite, fi , Pr. Fieri. 
^ r# $ Fito, ht0 ; I fitote, nunt0 ' Per. Esse o. fuisse factus, -a, 

-um. 
Fut. Factum iri. 

Participles. Supine. 

Per. Factus, -a, -um. Factu. 

Fut. Faciendus, -a, -um. 

The compounds of facio, which retain a, have also fio in 
the passive, and fac in the imperative active ; as, calefacio, 
to warm, calefio, calefac; but those which change a into i, 
form the passive regularly, and have fice, in the imperative; 
as, conficio, coitfice; conficior, confectus, confici. We find, 
however, confit, it is done, and confieri : defit, it is wanting ; 
injit, he begins. 

To irregular verbs may properly be subjoined what are 
commonly called Neuter Passive Verbs, which, like jio, form 
the preterite tenses according to the passive voice, and the 
rest in the active. These are, solep, solitus, solere, to use \ 
audeo, ausus, audere, to dare ; gaudeo, gavlsus, gaudere, to 
rejoice ; fido, flsus, fidere, to trust : So confldo, to trust ; 
and diffido, to distrust ; which also have confidi, and diffidi. 
Some add mozreo, mozstus, mozrere, to be sad ; but mozstus is 
generally reckoned an adjective. We likewise say juratus 
sum and ccenatus sum, for juravi and camavi, but these may 
also be taken in a passive sense. So pransus and potus, per- 
feet passive participles, have a deponent sense ; as, having 
dined, having drunk. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 123 

To these may be referred verbs wholly active in their ter- 
mination, and passive in their signification ; as, vapulo, -avi, 
•atim, to be beaten or whipped ,* veneo, to be sold ; exulo, to 
be banished ; as, vapulo, I am whipped ; veneo, I am sold ; 
exulo, I am banished, &c. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

Verbs are called Defective, which are not used in certain 
tenses, numbers, and persons. 

These three, odi, ccepi, and memini, are only used in the 
preterite tenses ; and therefore are called Preteritive Verbs ; 
though they have sometimes likewise a present signification ; 
thus, 

Odi, I hate or have hated, oderam, oderim, odissem, odero, 
odisse. Participles, osvs, osurus ; exosus, perosus. 

Ccepi, I begin or have begun, cceperam, -erim, -issem, *ero, 
4sse. Supine, cozptu. Participles, cceptus, ccepturus. 

Nemini, I remember, or have remembered, memineram, 
*erim, -issem, -ero, 4sse. Imperative, memento, mementote. 

Instead of odi, we sometimes say osus sum; and always exosus, perosus sum, 
and not exodi, perodi. We say opus co^pit fieri, or cceptum est. 

To these some add ndvi, because it frequently has the signification of the 
present, I know, as well as I have known, though it comes from nosco, which is 
complete. Novi, I know or have known; noveram, -enm, ~issem,~ero, -isse; con* 
traeted (noram,) (norim,) (nossem,) (nosse.) ^ iH 

Furo, to be mad, dor, to be given, and for, to speak, as 
also, der and fer, are not used in the first person singular ; 
thus we say, daris, datur ; but never dor. 

Of verbs which want many of their chief parts, the follow- - 
ing most frequently occur: Aib, I say; inquam, I say ; forem^ 
I should be ; ausim, contracted for ausus sim, I dare ; faxim, 
I'll see to it, or I will do it ; ave, and salve, save you, hail, 
good-morrow ; cedo, tell thou, or give me ; quceso, I pray. 

Indicative Mode. 
Present. Imperfect. Perfect. 
Sing. 1. Ego aio, I say. Sing. 1. Egoaiebam, Isaid. Sing. 1. 

2. Tu ais. 2. Tu aiebas. 2. Tu aisti, Thou hast 

3. IUe ait 3. Ille aiebat. 3. Ille ait. [said, 
Plur. 1. Plur. 1. Nos aiebamus. Plur. 1. 

2. 2. Vos aiebatis. 2. Vos aistis. 

a Uli aiunt 3. IUi aiebant 3. 

Subjunctive, 
Present. 
Sing.l piurA 

2. Tu aias, thou mayest say. 2. Vos aiatia. 

3. Ille aiat. 3. IUi aiant. 

Imperative. Participle. 

Sing* % Ai tu, do thou say. Pres. Aiens, saying. 



124 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 



Indicative. 

Imperfect. 

Sing. 



Perfect. 
Sing. 

1. Ego inquii, I have said. 

2. Tu inqulsti. 



Plur. 



Present 
Sing. 

1. Ego inquam, I say. 

2. Tu inquis. 

3. Me inquit. 

Plur. 

1. Nosinquimus. 
2- Vos inquitis. 
3. Illi inquhint. 

Future. 

Sing. 

2. Tu inquies, Thou shalt 

say. 

3. Ille inquiet 

Rest wanting. 

Some give the imperfect indicative entire, and parts of the present subjunc- 
tive thus : 



3. Ille inquiebat, He said. 3. 
Plur. 

1. 1. 

2. 2. Vos inquistis. 

3. Illi inquiebant. 3. 

Imperative. Participle. 

Sing. Pres. 

2. Inque vel inquito tu, say Inquiens, saying, 
thou. 



Sing. 1. 

2. Tu inquias. 

3. Ille inquiat 



Plur. 1. 

2. Vos inquiatis. 

3. Illi inquiant. 

Subjunctive. Forem. 
Imperfect and Pluperfect. I might, could, would, or should be, or have been. 
Sing. 1. Ego forem. Plur. 1. Nos foremus. So also decline — 

Ego afforem. 



2. Tu fores. 

3. Ille foret. 



2. Vos foretis. 



Tu affores, &c 



3. Illi forent. 
Infinitive. 
Future, Fore, to be hereafter, or to be about to be, the same with essefuturus; 
as is also afore. 

Subjunctive. 
Present. Perfect. 

Sing. Sing. 

1. Ego ausim, I dare. 1. Ego faxim, I wil 

2. Tu ausis. 2. Tu faxis. 

3. Ille ausit. 3. Ille faxit. 

No plural Plur. 

2. — - 

3. Illi faxint 

Note. Faxim and faxo are used instead of fecerim and fecero. 
Imperative. 



Future. 
Sing, 
do it. 1. Ego faxo, TU see to it 

2. Tu faxis. 

3. Ille faxit. 

[Plur. 

2. Vos faxltis. 

3. Illi faxint 



Infinitive. 
Sing. Plur. Pres. Avere, to hail. 

2. Ave vel aveto tu, hail 2. Avete vel avetote vos, 
tliou. hail ye. 

Sing. Plur. 

2. Salve vel salveto tu, 2. Salvete vel salvetote Pres. Salvere, to hail, 
save thou, or God save vos, save ye. Fut. Indie. Sing. % Salve* 



Sing. 2. Cedo tu, teU thou. 



Sing. 1. Ego qusBSO, I pray. 



vos, save ye. 

D1S. 

Imperative. 

Plur. 2. Cedite vos, teU ye. 
3. 

Indie. Present. 

Plur. 1. Nos quaesiimus, we pray. 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 125 

Also add to these defective verbs the two following, which are often adverbs. 
Imperative. 
Sing. 2. Age vel agedum tu, come thou Sing. 2. Apage tu, go hence or away 



3. 



-3. 



with yourself. 



Plur. 2. Agite vos, do ye come on. 
3. — 



Plur. 2. Apagete vos, away with your- 
3. 



Most of the other defective verbs are but single words, and rarely to be 
found, but among the poets ; as, infit, he begins ; dejii, it is wanting. Some 
are compounded of a verb and the conjunction si ; as, sis for si vis, if thou 
wilt ; sultis for si vultis ; sodes for si audes, equivalent to qwceso, I pray -, capsis 
for cape si vis. 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

A verb is called Impersonal, which has only the termina- 
tions of the third person singular, but does not admit any 
person or nominative before it. 

Impersonal verbs, in English, have before them the neuter 
pronoun it, which is not considered as a person ; thus, delec- 
tci, it delights ; decet, it becomes ; contingit, it happens ; 
evenit, it happens : 

Indicative. 

1st Conj. 2d Conj. 3d Conj. Mlt Conj. 

Pr. Delectat,* Decet, Contingit, Evenit, 

Im. Delectabat, Decebat, Contingebat, Eveniebat, 

Per. Delectavit, Decuit, Contigit, Evenit, 

Plu. Delectaverat, Decuerat, Contigerat, Evenerat, 

Put. Delectabit Decebit. Continget. Eveniet. 



Pr. Delectet, 
Im. Delectaret, 
Per. Delectaverit, 
Plu. Delectavisset, 
Fut. Delectaverit 



Pr. Delectare, 
Per. Delectavisse, 



Subjunctive. 
Deceat, Contingat, 

Deceret, Contingeret, 

Decuerit, Contigerit, 

Decuisset, Contigisset, 

Decuerit. Contigerit 

Infinitive. 
Decere, Contingere, 

Decuisse. Contigisse. 



Eveniat, 

Eveniret, 

Evenerit, 

Evenisset, 

Evenerit. 



Evenlre, 
Evenisse. 



* 1st 

Active Voice. 
Delectat 

Ind. Pres. It delights, 
Imp. It delighted, 
Per. It has delighted, 
Plu. It had delighted, 
Fut. It shall delight. 

Subj. Pres. It may delight, 
Imp. It might delight. 
Per. It may have delighted, 
Plu. It might have delighted, 
Fut. It shall have delighted. 

Infin. Pres. To delight, 

Per. To have delighted. 

After the same manner, English the 



Conjugation. 

Passive Voice. 
Pugnatur. 
Ind. Pres. It is fought, 
Imp. It was fought, 
Per. It has been fought, 
Plu. It had been fought, 
Fut. It shall be fought. 
Subj. Pres. It may be fought, 
Imp. It might be fought, 
Per. It may have been fought, 
Plu. It might have been fought, 
Fut. It shall have been fought 
Infin. Pres. To be fought, 

Per. To have been fought, 
Fut. To be about to be fought, 
other conjugations of Impersonals. 
L 2 



126 IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

Most Latin verbs may be used impersonally in the passive 
voice, especially Neuter and Intransitive verbs, which other- 
wise have no passive ; as, pugndtur, favetur, curritur, veni* 
tur ; from pugno, to fight ; faveo, to favor ; curro, to run ; 
venio, to come : 



Pr. Pugnatur, 
Jm. Pugnabatur, 
Per. Pugnatura est, 
Plu. Pugnatura erat, 
Fut, Pugnabitur. 



Favetur, 
Favebatur, 
Fautum est, 
Fautum erat, 
Favebitur. 



Indicative. 

Curritur, 
Currebatur, 
Cursum est, 
Cursum erat, 
Curretur. 



Pr. Pugnetur, 

Im. Pugnaretur, 

Per. Pugnatum sit, 

Plu. Pugnatum esset, Fautum esset, 

Fut Pugnatum fuerit. Fautum fuerit. 



Subjunctive. 
Faveatur, Curratur, 

Faveretur, 
Fautum sit, 



Curreretur, 
Cursum sit, 
Cursum esset, 
Cursum fuerit. 



Venituf, 
Veniebatur, 
Ventum est, 
Ventum erat. 
Venietur. 

" Veniatur, 
Venire tur, 
Ventum sit, 
Ventum esset, 
Ventum fuerit. 



Infinitive. 
Pr. Pugnari, Faveri, Curri, Veniri, 

Per. Pugnatum esse, Fautum esse, Cursum esse, Ventum esse, 

Fut. Pugnatum iri. Fautum irK Cursum iri. Ventum iri. 

Obs. 1. Impersonal verbs are scarcely used in the imperative, but instead of 
it; we take the subjunctive; as, delectet, let it delight, &c; nor in the supines, 
participles, or gerunds, except a few; as, pcenitens, -dum, -dus, &c. Induct ad 
pudendum etpigendum, Cic. In the preterite tenses of the passive voice, the 
participle perfect is always put in the neuter gender. 

Obs. 2. Grammarians reckon only ten real impersonal verbs, and all in the 
second conjugation; decet, it becomes; pwriilet, it repents; oportet, it behoves; 
miseret, it pities ; piget, it irketh ; pudet, it shameth ; licet, it is lawful ; Tibet or 
luiety it pleaselh ; tcedet, it wearieth ; liquet, it appears ; of which the following 
have a double preterite ; miseret, miseruit, or misertum est ; piget, piguit, or 
pigitum est ; pudet, puduii, or puditum est ; licet, licuit, or licitum est ; libet, IU 
ouit, or libitum est ; tcedit, t&duit, or tcesum est, oftener ' pertcesum est. But many 
other verbs are used impersonally in all the conjugations. 

In the first, Juvat, spectat, vdcat, slat, constat, prceslat, restat, §c. 

In the second, Appdret, attinet, pertinet, debet, dolet, nocet, latet, liquet, patet, 
placet, displicet, sedet, solet, fyc. 

In the third, Accidit, incipit, desinit, sufficit, fyc. 

In the fourth, Convenit, expedii, fyc. 

Also irregular verbs, Est, obest, prodest, potest, interest) superest ; sit, prceteriu 
nequit, and nequttur, subit, confert, refert, fyc. 

Obs. 3. Under impersonal verbs may be comprehended those which express 
the operations or appearances of nature ; as, Fulgurat, fulminat, tonat, grandX- 
not, gelat, pluit, ningit, lucescit, advesperascit, tyc. 

Obs. 4. Impersonal verbs are applied to any person or number, by putting 
that which stands before other verbs after the impersonals, in the cases which 
they govern: as, placet, mild, tibi, illi, it pleases me, thee, him; or I please, 
thou pleasest, &c; pugnatur a me, a te, ab illo, I fight, thou tightest, he fighteth, 
&c. So Curritur, veniti/r a me, a te, fyc. I run, thou runnest, &c. Favetur tibi 
a me, Thou art favored by me, or I favor thee, &c. 

Obs. 5. Verbs are used personally or impersonally, according to the particular 
meaning which they express, or the different import of the words with which 
they are joined ; thus we can say, ego placeo tibi, I please you; but we cannot 
say, si places audire, if you please to hear, but si placet tibi audire. So we can 
say.mulla homini contingunt, many things happen to a man; but instead of 
- ego contigi esse domi, we must either say, me contigit esse domi, or mihi contigii 
esse domi, I happened to be at home. The proper and elegant use of Imper- 
sonal verbs can only be acquired by practice. 



REDUNDANT VERBS* 127 

Redundant Verbs. 

Those are called Redundant Verbs, which have different forms to express tho 
same sense; thus, assentio and assentior, to agree; fabrico and fabricor, to 
frame ; mereo and mereor, to deserve, &c. These verbs, however, under tho 
passive form, have likewise a passive signification. 

Several verbs are used in different conjugations. 

1. Some are usually of the first conjugation, and rarely of the third ; as, law, 
lavas, lavdre ; and lavo, lavis, lavere, to wash. 

2. Some are usually of the second, and rarely of the third ; as, 
Ferveo, ferves, and fervo, fervis, to boil. 

Fulgeo, fulges, and fulgo, fulgis, to shine. 

Strideo, strides, and strido, stridis, to make a hissing noise, to creak. 
Tueor, tueris, and tuor, tueris, to defend. 

To these add tergeo, terges ; and tergo, tergis, to wipe, which are equally 
common. 

3. Some are commonly of the third conjugation, and rarely of the fourth; as, 
Fodio, fodis, fodere, and fodio, fodis, fodire, to dig. 

Sallo, sallis, sallere, and sallio, sallis, sallire, to salt. 

Arcesso, -is, arcessere, and arcessio, arcessire, to send for. 

Morior, moreris, mori, and morior, morlris, moriri, to die. 

So Orior, oreris, and orior, oriris, oriri, to rise. 

Potior, poteris, and potior, potiiis, patlri, to enjoy. 

There is likewise a verb which is usually of the second conjugation, and 
more rarely of the fourth, namely, do, cies, ciere ; and bio, cis, tire, to rouse ; 
whence acc'ire and accitus. 

To these we may add the verb EDO, to eat, which, though regularly formed, 
also agrees in several of its parts with sum ; thus it is varied as far as it falls 
in with sum. 



Present Indie. Present Infin. Perfect Indie. Supii 


Edo, Edere vel esse, 


Edi, Esutj 


So comedo, which has sometimes comestum in 


the supine. 


Indicative Mode. 




Present." 




Sing. 1. Ego edo, 


I eat 


2. Tu edis vel es, 


Thou eatest. 


3. Hie edit vel est, 


He eats. 


Plur. 1. Nos edimus, 


We eat 


2. Vos editis vel estis, 


Ye eat. 


3. 1111 edunt, • 


Tliey eat 


Subjunctive. 




Imperfect 




Sing. 1. Ego ederem vel essem, 


I might eat 


2. Tu ederes vel esses, 


Thou mightest eat. 


3. Ille ederet vel esset, 


He might eat 


Plur.l. Nosederemus veZessemus, 


We might eat. 


2. Vos edere tis vel essetis, 


Ye might eat. 


3. Illi ederent vel essent, 


They might eat. 



Imperative. 
Sing. 2. Ede or edito, vel es or esto tu, Eat thou. 

3. Edito vel esto ille, Let him eat 

Plur. 2. Edite or editute vel este or estote vos, Eat ye. 

3. Edunto illi, Let them eat 

Infinitive. 
Pres. Edere vel esse, To eat 

Passive Indie. Pres. Editur vel estur, It is eaten. 

The other parts of edo are not redundant, and are conjugated like lego, 



128 REDUNDANT VERBS. 

It may not be improper here to subjoin a list of those verbs which resemble 
one another in some of their parts, though they differ in signification. Of these 
-some agree in the present, some in the preterite, and the others in the supine. 

1. The following agree in the present, but are differently 
conjugated : 

Aggero, -as, to heap up. Aggero, -is, to bring together. ' 

App«lIo, -as, to call. Appello, -is ? to drive to, to arrix . 

Compello, -as, to address. Compello, -is, to drive together. 

Colligo, -as, to bind. Colligo, -is, to gather together. 

Consterno, -as, to astonish. Consterno, -is, to strew. 

Effero, -as, to enrage. Effero, -fers, to bring out. 

Fundo, -as, to found. Fundo, -is, to pour out. 

Mando, -as, to command. Mando, -is, to chew. 

Obsero, -as, to lock. Obsero, -is, to beset. 

Volo, -as, to fly. Volo, -vis, to will. 

Of this class some have a different quantity ; as, 

Colo, -as, to strain. Colo, -is, to till. 

Dico, -as, to dedicate. Dioo, -is, to say. 

Ediico, -as, to train up. Educo, -is, to lead forth. 

Lego, -as, to send on an embassy. Lego, -is, to read. 

Vado, -as, to wade. Vado, -is, to go. 

2. The following verbs agree in the preterite : v 

Aceo, acui, to be sour. Acuo, acui. to sharpen. ' 

Cresco, crevi, to groan. Cerno, crevi, to see. 

Frigeo, frixi, to be cold. Frigo, frixi, to fry. 

Fulgeo, fulsi, to shine. Fulcio, fulsi, to prop. 

Luceo, luxi, to shine. Lugeo, luxi, to mourn. 

Paveo, pavi, to be afraid. Pasco, pavi, to feed. 

Pendeo, pependi, to hang. Pendo, pependi, to weigh 

3. The following agree in the supine : 

Cresco, cretum, to grow. Cerno, cretnm, to behold. 

Maneo, mansum, to stay. Mando, mansum, to chew. 

Sto, statum, to stand. - Sisto, statum, to stop. 

Succenseo, -censum, to be angry. Succendo, -censum, to kindle. 

Teneo, tentum, to hold. Tendo, tentum, to stretch out 

Verro, versum, to sweep. Verto, versum, to turn. 

Vinco, victum, to overcome. Vivo, victum, to live. 

The Obsolete Conjugation. 

This chiefly occurs in old writers, and only in -particular conjugations and 
tenses. 

1. The ancient Latins made the imperfect of the indicative active of the 
fourth conjugation in IBAM, without the e ; as, audTibam, scibam, for audiebam, 
sciebam. 

2. In the future of the indicative of the fourth conjugation, they used IBO 
in the active, and ibor in the passive voice ; as, dorm'ibo, dormibor, for dormiam, 
dormiar. 

3. The present of the subjunctive anciently ended in IM; as, edim, for edam; 
duim, for dem. 

4. The perfect of the subjunctive active sometimes occurs in SSIM, and the 
future in SSO; as, levassim, levasso, for levaverim, levavero; capsim, capso, for 
caperim, capero. Hence the future of the infinitive was formed in ASSERE ; 
as, levassere, for levaturus esse. 

5. In the second person of the present of the imperative passive, we find 
MINO in the singular, and minor in the plural ,* as, famino % for fare; and pro* 
gredinfinor, for progredimzni. 



DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION OF VERBS. 129 

6. The syllable ER was frequently added to the present of the infinitive pas- 
sive; as, f arier, for fari; dicier, for did. 

7. The participle of the future time active, and perfect passive, when joined 
with the verb esse, were sometimes used as indeclinable : thus, credo inimicos 
dicturum esse, for dicturos, Cic. Cohortes ad me missum facias^ for missas, Cic. 
ad Attic, viii. 12. 

Derivation and~Composition of Verbs. 

I. Verbs are derived either from nouns or from other 
verbs. 

Verbs derived from nouns are called Denominative; as, 
Camo, to sup ; laudo, to praise ; fraudo, to defraud ; lapido, 
to throw stones ; operor, to work ; frumentor r to forage ; lignor, 
to gather fuel, &c. from cama, lavs, fraus, &c. But when 
they express imitation or resemblance, they are called Imita* 
five ; as, Patrisso, Grcecor, biibulo, cornlcor, &c. I imitate 
or resemble my father, a Grecian, a crow, &c. from pater, 
Grcecus, comix. 

Of those derived from other verbs, the following chiefly 
deserve attention ; namely, Frequentatives, Inceptives, and 
Desideratives. 

1. FREQUENTATIVES express frequency of action, 
and are all of the first conjugation. They are formed from 
the last supine, by changing atu into ito, in verbs of the first 
conjugation ; and by changing u into o, in verbs of the other 
three conjugations ; as, clamo, to cry ; clamito, to cry fre- 
quently ; terreo, terrxto ; verto, verso ; dormio, dormito. 

In like manner, Deponent verbs form Frequentatives in or; 
as, minor, to threaten ; minxtor, to threaten frequently. 

Some are formed in an irregular manner; as, nolo from no; noscito from 
nosco ; scilor, or rather sciscilor from scio ; pavito from paveo ; sector, from sequor ; 
logifitoTi from loquor. So quterito, fundito, agito,fluito, &c. 

From Frequentative verbs are also formed other Frequentatives ; as, curro, 
cttrso, cursito; pello, pulso, pulsito, or by contraction, pulto; capio, capto % 
caplito; cano, canto, cantito; defendo, defenso, defensito; dico, dicto, dictxto; 
gero,gesto, gestito ; jacio, jacto, jaUito ; venio, ventito; mutio, musso, (for mutito) 
mussito, &c. e 

Verbs of this kind do not always express frequency of action. Many of them 
have much the same sense with their primitives, or express the meaning more 
strongly. 

2. INCEPTIVE Verbs mark the beginning or continued 
increase of any thing. They are formed from the second 
person sing, of the present of the indicative, by adding co ; 
as, caleo, to be hot, cales, calesco, to grow hot. So in the 
other conjugations, labasco, from labo ; tremisco, from tremo; 
obdormisco, from obdormio. Hisco, from hio, is contracted 
from hiasco. Inceptives are likewise formed from substan- 
tives and adjectives; as, puerasco, from puer; dulcesco, from 
dulcis; juvenesco, from juvenis. 



130 PARTICIPLE. 

All inceptives are Neuter verbs, and of the third conjuga- 
tion. They want both the preterite and supine; unless very 
rarely, when they borrow them from the primitives. 

3. DESIDERATIVE Verbs signify a desire or intention 
of doing a thing. They are formed from the latter supine, 
by adding rio, and shortening the u ; as, cmndturio, I desire 
to sup, from ccenatu. They are all of the fourth conjugation ; 
and want both preterite and supine, except these three, esiirio, 
-ivi, -Hum, to desire to eat ; parturio, -ivi, , to be in tra- 
vail ; nuptiirio, -ivi, , to desire to be married. 

There are a few verbs in LLO, which are called Diminutive ; as, cantillo, 
sorbillo, -are, I sing, I sup a little. To these some add albico, and candico, -are, 
to be or to grow whitish; also, nigrico, fodico, and vellico. Some verbs in SSO 
are called Intensive ; as, Capesso, facesso, petesso or petisso, I take, I do, I seek 
earnestly. 

Verbs are compounded with nouns, with other verbs, with adverbs, and 
chiefly with prepositions. Many of these simple verbs are not in use ; as, Futo, 
fendo, specio, gruo, &c. The component parts usually remain entire. Some- 
times a letter is added ; as, prodeo for pro-eo ; or taken away ; as, asporto, omit- 
to, trado, pejero, pergo, debeo, prasbeo, &c. for absporto, obmitto, transdo, perjuro, 
perrego, dehibeo, prcehibeo, &c. So demo, promo, sumo, of de, pro, sub, and emo % 
which anciently signified to take, or to take awaM. Often the vowel or diphthong 
of the simple verb, and the last consonant or the preposition, is changed ; as, 
damno, condemno; calco, conculco; Icedo, collido; audio, obedio, &c. Affero, 
auferOt collaudo, impUco, &c. for adfero, abfero, conlaudo, inplico, &c. 

PARTICIPLE. 

A Participle is a kind of adjective formed from a verb, 
which in its signification implies time. 

It is so called, because it partakes both of an adjective and of a verb, having 
in Latin gender and declension from the one, time and signification from the 
other, and number from both. Participles in English^ like adjectives, admit of 
no variation. 

Participles in Latin are declined like adjectives: and their signification is 
various according to the nature of the verbs from which they come ; only par- 
ticiples in dus, are always passive, and import not so much future time, as obli- 
gation or necessity. 

Participles in ns are declined like felix ; as, amans, gen. amantis ; and those 
in us like bonus ; as, doctus, -a, -urn. 

Latin verbs have four Participles, the present and future 
active ; as, Amans, loving ; dmdturus, about to love ; and the 
perfect and future passive ; as, amdtus, loved, amandus y to be 
loved. 

The Latins have not a participle perfect in the active, nor a participle present 
in the passive voice; which defect must be supplied by a circumlocution. 
Thus, to express the perfect participle active in English, we use a conjunction, 
and the pluperfect of the subjunctive in Latin, or some other tense, according 
to its connexion with the other words of a sentence ; as, he having loved, 
quam amavisset, &c. 

Neuter verbs have commonly but two Participles; as, 
S8dens, sessurus; stans, stdturus. 



PARTICIPLE. 131 

From some neuter verbs are formed participles of the perfect tense ; as, 
Erratus, festinatus, juratus, laboratus, vigilatus, cessatus, sudatus, triumphatus^ 
regnatus, decursus, desUus, emeritus, enter sus, obitus, placttus, successus, occasus, 
&c. and also of the future in dus; as, Jurandus, vigilandus, regnandus, caren- 
dus, dormiendus, erubescendus, &c. Neuter passive verbs are equally various. 
Veneo has no participle; Fido, only Jidens and fisus; soleo, solens and solitusj 
wpulo, vapulans and vapulaturus; Gaudeo, gaudens, gavisus and gavisurus; 
Audeo, audens, ausus, ausurus, audendus. Ausus is used both in an active 
and passive sense ; as, Ausi omnes, immune nefas, ausoque potiti. Virg. iEn, 
Vi. 624. 

Deponent and Common verbs have commonly four Partici- 
ples; as, 

Loquens, speaking ; locuturus, about to speak ; locutus, having spoken ; loquer* 
dus, to be spoken. Dignans, vouchsafing; dignaturus, about to vouchsafe; 
dignatus, having vouchsafed, being vouchsafed, or having been vouchsafed ; 
dignandus, to be vouchsafed. Many participles of the perfect tense from De- 
ponent verbs have both an active and passive sense ; as, Abominatus, conatus, 
confessus, adortus, amplexus, blanditus, largitus, menlttus, obl'dus, testatus, veneror 
tus, &c. 

There are several participles, compounded with in signifying not, the verbs 
of which do not admit of such composition ; as, Insciens, insperans, indlcens for 
non dicens, inopinans, and necoplnans, immerens ; Illcesus, impransus, inconsulr 
tus, incustoditus, immetatus, impunitus, imparatus, incomitatus, incomptus, indem- 
natus, indotatus, incorruptus, interritus, and imperterritus, intestatus, inausus, 
inopinatus, inultus, incensus for non census, not registered ; infectus for non /ac- 
tus, invisus for non visus, indictus for non dictus, &c. There is a different 
incensus from incendo; infectus from injicio; invisus from invtdeo; indictus 
from indico, &c. . ' 

If from the signification of a Participle we take away time, 
it becomes an adjective, and admits the degrees of compari- 
son; as, 

Amans, loving, amantior, amantissimus ; doctus, learned, doctior, doctissimus : 
or a substantive; as, Prczfectus, a commander or governor; consonans, f. sc. 
litera, a consonant; continens, f. sc. terra, a continent; confluens, m. a place 
where tworivers run together; oriens, m. sc. sol, the east; occidens, m. the west; 
dictum, a saying ; scriptum, &c. 

There are many words in ATUS, ITUS, and UTUS, which although re- 
sembling participles, are reckoned adjectives, because they come from nouns 
and not from verbs ; as, alatus, barbatus, cordatus, caudatus, cristatus, aurttus, 
pellUus, turritus; astutus, cornutus, nasutus, &c. winged, bearded, discreet, &c 
But auratus, aratus, argentalus, ferratus, plumbatus, gypsatus, calceatus, cly- 
peatus, galeatus, tunicatus, larvatus, palliatus, lymphatus, purpuratus, prcetextatuSt 
&c. covered with gold, brass, silver, &c. are accounted participles, because 
they are supposed to come from obsolete verbs. So perhaps calamistratus t 
frizzled, crisped or curled, crinitus, having long hair, peritus, skilled, &c. 

There are a land of Verbal adjectives in BUNDUS, formed from the imper- 
fect of the indicative, which very much resemble Participles in their significa- 
tion, but generally express the meaning of the verb more fully, or denote 
an abundance or great deal of action; as, vitabundus, the same with valde 
vitans, avoiding much ; Sal. Jug. 60. and 101 ; Liv. xxv. 13. So errabundus, 
iudibundus, populabundus, moribundus, &c. 

GERUNDS AND SUPINES. 

GERUNDS are participial words, which bear the significa- 
tion of the verb from which they are formed ; and are declined 
like a neuter noun of the second declension, through all the 
cases of the singular number, except the vocative. 



132 ADVERB. 

There are, both in Latin and English, substantives derived from the verb, 
which so much resemble the Gerund in their signification, that frequently they 
may be substituted in its place. They are generally used, however, in a more 
undetermined sense than the Gerund, and in English have the article always 
prefixed to them. Thus, with the Gerund, Delector legendo Ciceronem, I am 
delighted with reading Cicero. But with the substantive, Delector lectione 
Ciceronis, I am delighted with the reading of Cicero. 

The Gerund and Future Participle of verbs in to, and some others, often 
take u instead of € ; as,faciundum,^ai, -do, -dus ; expenundum,potiundum, gerunr 
dum, petundum, ducundum, &c. for faciendum, &c. 

SUPINES have much the same signification with Gerunds ; 
and may be indifferently applied to any person or number. 
They agree in termination with nouns of the fourth declension, 
having only the accusative and ablative cases. 

The former Supine is commonly used in an active, and the latter in a passive 
sense, but sometimes the contrary ; as, coctum non vapulatum, dudum conductus 
fui, i. e. ut vapularem, v. verberarer, to be beaten. Plaut. 

ADVERB. 

An adverb is an indeclinable part of speech, added to a 
verb, adjective, or other adverb, to express some circumstance, 
quality, or manner of their signification. 

All adverbs may be divided into two classes, namely, those 
which denote Circumstance; and those which denote Quality, 
Manner, &c. 

I. Adverbs denoting Circumstance are chiefly those of 
Place, Time, and Order. 

1. Adverbs of Place are five-fold, namely, such as signify, 



1. Motion or rest in a place. 



3. Motion towards a place. 



Ubi? 
Hie, 

niic, 

Isthic, 

Ibi, 

Intus, 

FSris, 

Ubique, 

Nusquam, 

Alicubi, 

Alibi, 

Ubivis, 

Ibidem, 



Where ? 
Here. 



There. 



Within. 

Without. 

Everywhere. 

Nowhere. 

Somewhere. 

Elsewhere. 

Anywhere. 

In the same place. 



2. Motion to a place. 



Quo? 
Hue, 
Illuc, 

Isthuc, 

Intro, 

Foras, 

Ed, 

Alio, 

Aliquo, 

Egdem, 



Whither? 
Hither. 

Thither. 

In. 

Out. 

To that place. 

To another place. 

To some place. 

To the same place* 



Quorsum ? 

Versus, 

Horsum, 

Illorsum, 

Sursum, 

Deorsum, 

Antrorsum, 

Retrorsum, 

Dextrorsum, 

Sinistrorsum, 

4. Motion from < 
Unde? 
Hinc, 
Illinc, 
Isthinc, 
Inde, 
Indidem, 
Aliunde, 
Alicunde, 
Sicunde, 
Utrinque, 
Siiperne, 
Inferne, 
Coelitus, 
Funditus, 



Whitherward? 

Towards. 

Hitherward. 

Thiflierward. 

Upward. 

Downward. 

Forward. 

Backward. 

Towards the right. 

Towards the left. 



Whence ? 
Hence. 



From the same place. 
From elsewhere. 
From some place* 
If from any place. 
On both sides. 
From above. 
From below. 
From heaven. 
From the ground* 






5. Motion through or by a place. 
Qua? Which way? 

Hac, This way. 



ADVEJtB. 

Iliac, 

Isthac, 

Alia, 



133 



That way. 
Another way. 



2. Adverbs of Time are three-fold, namely, such as sig- 
nify, 
1. Some particular time, either pres- Interim, In the mean time* 



ent, past, future, or indefinite. 



Quotidie, 



Daily. 



Nuih;, 
Hodie, 


Now. 
To-day. 


2. Continuance 


of time. 


Tunc, ) 
Turn, < 
Heri, 


Then. 


Diu, 
Quandi'u> 


Long. 
How long* 


Yesterday. 


Tamdiu, 


So long. 


Dudum, ) 
Pridem, $ 


Heretofore. 


Jamdiu, j 
Jamdudum, > 
Jampridem, > 


Long ago. 


Pridie, 


The day before. 
Three days ago. 
Lately. 




Niidius tertius, 
Niiper, 


3. Vicissitude or repetition of time. 


Jamjam, \ 
Mox, > 
Statim, ) 


Presently. 


Quo ties ? 


How often ? 


Immediately. 


Saepe, 


• Often. 


By and by. 


Raro, 


Seldom. 


Protinus, 


Instantly. 


Toties, 


So often. 


Illico, 


Straightway. 


Alixpoties, 


For several times, 


Cras, 


To-morrow. 


Vicissim, ) 


By turns. 


Postridie, 


The day after. 


Alterhatim, ) 


Perendie, 
Nondum, 


Two days hence. 
Not yet. 


. Rursus, / 
Iterum, \ 


Again. 


Quando ? 


When? 


Subinde, J 


Ever and anon, now 


Aliquando, * \ 
Nonnunquam, > 
Interdum, ) 




Identidem, $ 


and then. 


Sometimes. 


Semel, 


Once. » 




Bis, 


Twice. 


Semper, 


Ever, always. 


Ter, 


Thrice. 


Nunquam, 


Never. 


Quater, 


Four times, &c. 


3. Adverbs of Order* 






Inde, 


Then. 


DSnique, 


Finally, 


Deinde, 


After that. 


Postremo, 


Lastly. 


Dehinc, 


Henceforth. 


Primo, -um, 


First. 


Porro, 


Moreover. 


Secundo, -um, 


Secondly* 


Deinceps, 


So forth. 


Tertio, -um, 


Thirdly. 
Fourtluy, &c. 


Denuo, 


Of new. 


Quarto, -um, 



II, Adverbs denoting QUALITY, MANNER, &c. are either Absolute or 
Comparative. 

Those called Absolute denote, 

1. QUALITY, simply ; as, bene, well ; male, ill ; fortiter, bravely; and innu- 
merable others that come from adjective nouns or participles. 

2. CERTAINTY; as, prbfecto, certe, sane, plane, tub, utique, ita, etiam, truly, 
verily, yes ; quidni, why not ? omnino, certainly. 

3. CONTINGENCE ; as, forte, forsan, fortassis, fors, haply, perhaps, by 
chance, peradventure. 

4- NEGATION ; as, non, hand, not ; nequaquam, not at all ; neuUouam, by 
no means ; rnintme, nothing less. 

5. PROHIBITION; as, ne, not. 

6. SWEARING ; as, hercle,pol, edepol, mec&stor, by Hercules, by Pollux, &c. 

7. EXPLAINING; as, utpote, videlicet, scilicet, riimirum, nempe, to wit, 
namely. 

8. SEPARATION; as, seorsum, apart ; sep&ratim, separating ; slgillaiim, one 
by-one ; viritim, man by man ; oppidatim, town by town, &c> 

M 



134 ADVERB. 

9. JOINING TOGETHER; as, simul, un&, pariler, together; gtneroMter, * 
generally ; universaliter, universally ; plerumque, for the most part. 

10. INDICATION or POINTING out ; as, en, ecce, lo, behold. 

11. INTERROGATION; as, cur, quare, quamobrem, why, wherefore? man, 
an, whether ? quomodo, qui, how ? To which add, Ubi, quo, quorsum, unde, qua, 
quando, quamdiu, quoties, 

Those adverbs which are called Comparative, denote, 

1. EXCESS ; as, valde, maxime, magnopere, maximopere, summopere, admo- 
dum, oppidb, perquam, longe, greatly, very much, exceedingly ; nimis, nimium, 
too much ; prorsus, pemtus, omnino, altogether, wholly ; magis, more ; melius, 
better ; pejus, worse ; fortius, more bravely; and optime, best; pessime, worst; 
fortissime, most bravely; and innumerable others of the comparative and 
superlative degrees. 

2. DEFECT; as,ferme,fere,propemodum,pene, almost; parum, little ; paulo, 
paulutum, very little. 

3. PREFERENCE ; as, potius, satiits, rather ; polissimum, prcecipue, praise?' 
tim, chiefly, especially ; imo, yes, nay, nay rather. 

4. LIKENESS or EQUALITY ; as, ita, sic, dded, so ; ut, uti, sicut, sicuti, 
velut, veluti, ceu, tanquam, quasi, as, as if; quemadmodum, even as ; satis, enough ; 
itidtm, in like manner ; juxta, alike, equally. 

5. UNLIKENESS or INEQUALITY; as, aliter, secus, otherwise; alivqui 
or alioquin, else ; nedum, much more or much less. 

6. ABATEMENT; as, sensim, pauldtim, pedetentim, by degrees, piecemeal; 1 
vix, scarcely ; cegre, hardly, with difficulty. 

7. EXCLUSION; as, tantum, solum, modd,tantummodo,duntaxat,emum, only. 

Derivation, Comparison, and Composition of ADVERBS. 

Adverbs are derived, 1. from Substantives, and end commonly in TIM or 
TUS ; as, Partim, partly, by parts ,• nomindtim, by name ; generatim, by kinds, 
generally ; speciatim, vxcatim, gregatim ; radicitus, from the root, &c. 2. From 
Adjectives : and these are by far the most numerous. Such as come from Ad- 
jectives of the first and second declension usually end in E ; as, liber e, freely; 
plene, fully : some in O, UM, and TER : as, jf also, tantum, graviter: a few in A, 
ITUS, and IM ; as, redd, antiquitus, privatim. Some are used two or three 
ways, as, primum, v. -b ; pure, -iter ; certe, -o ; cautl, -tim ; humane, -iter, -ztus; pub- 
lice, publicitus, &c. Adverbs from adjectives of the third declension commonly 
end in TER, seldom in E ; as, turpiter,feliciter, acriter, pariter ; facile, repentet 
one in O, omnino. The neuter of Adjectives is sometimes taken adverbially; 
as, recens natus, for recenter ; perfidum ridens, for perfide, Hor. multa reluctans, 
for multum or valde, Virg. So in English we say, to speak loud, high, &c. for 
loudly, highly, &c. In many cases a Substantive is understood ; as, primo, sc 
loco ; optatb advenis, sc. tempore ; hdc, sc. via, &c. 

3. From each of the pronominal adjectives ille, iste, hie, is, idem, &c. are 
formed adverbs, which express all the circumstances of place ; as, from ilk* 
illic, illuc, illorsum, illinc, and iliac. So from quis, ubi, quo, quorsum, unde, and 
qua. Also of time ; thus, quando, quandiu, &c. 

4. From verbs and participles ; as, caisim, with the edge ; punctim, with the 
point ; strictim, closely ; from ccedo, pungo, stringo ; amanter, prbperanter, dubi- 
tanter ; distinct^, emendate ; meritb, inopinato, &c. But these last are thought 
to be in^the ablative, having ex understood. 

5. From prepositions ; as, intus,intro, from in ; clanculum, from clam; subtus, 
from sub, &c. 

Adverbs derived from adjectives are commonly compared 
like their primitives. The positive generally ends in e, or 
ter ; as, dure, facile, acriter: the comparative in ius; as, 
duriiis, facilius, acriiis: the superlative in ime; as, duri$sim£, 
facillime, acerrime. 



PREPOSITION. 135 

If the comparison of tjie adjective be irregular or defective, 
the comparison of the adverb is so too; as, bene, melius, op* 
time ; male, pejus, pessime ; pariim, minus, minime, & -iim ; 
multum, plus, plurimum; prope, propiiis, proxime; ocyus, 
ocyssime ; prius, primb, -urn; nuper, nuperrime ; nove, & no* 
Titer, novissime; merito, meritissimb, &c. These adverbs also 
are compared whose primitives are obsolete ; as, scepe, sapiiiSi 
SjCBpissime ; penitus, penitius, penitissime ; satis, satius ; secus^ 
secius, &c. Magis, maxime ; and potius, potissimum, want the 
positive. - 

Adverbs in English are not varied by comparison, except some few of them, 
particularly irregulars, as often, oftener, oftenest; well, better, best; much, more, 
most, &c. 

Adverbs are variously compounded with all the different parts of speech ; 
thus, postridie, magnopere, maximopere, summopere, tantopere, multimodis, om~ 
nimodis, quomodo, quare ; of postero die, magno opere, &c. llicet, scilicet, 
videlicet, of ire, scire, videre, licet ; illico, of in loco ; quorsum, of quo versum ; 
comminus, hand to hand, of cum or con and manus ; emtnus, at a distance, 
of e and manus; denuo, anew, of de novo; quin, why not, but, of qui ne; cur, 
of cui rei; pedetentim, step by step, as it were, of pedem tendendo; perendie, 
for perempto die ; nimirum, of ne, i. e. non and mirum ; antea, postea, prceterea, 
&c. of ante and ea, &c. Ubivis, quovis, undelicet, quousque, ■eicut, sicuti, velut, 
zeluti, desuper, insuper, qucemobrem, &c. of ubi and vis, &c. nudiustertius, of 
nunc dies tertius ; identidem, of idem et idem ; imprcesentiarum % i. e. in tempore ' 
rerum prcesentium, &c. 

Obs. 1. The adverb is not an essential part of speech. It only serves to ex- 
press shortly, in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more ; 
as, sapienter, wisely, for cum sapientia ; liic, for in hoc loco ; semper, for in omni 
tempore; semel, for una vice; his y for duabus vicibus; Mehercule, for Hercules 
mejuvet, &c. 

Obs. 2. Some adverbs of time, place, and order, are frequently used the one 
for the other ; as ubi, where or when ; inde, from that place, from that time, 
after that, next; hactenus y hitherto, thus far, with respect to place, time, or 
order, &c. 

Obs. 3. Some adverbs of time are either past, present, or future ; as, jam, 
already, now, by and by; olim, long ago, some time, hereafter. Some adverbs 
of place are equally various; thus, esseperegre, to be abroad; ireperegre, to go 
abroad ; redire peregre, to return from abroad, 

Obs. 4. Interrogative adverbs of time and place doubled or compounded with 
cunque, answer to the English adjection so ever ; as ubiubi, or ubicunque, where- 
soever : qubquo, qubcunque, whithersoever, &c. The same holds also in inter- 
rogative words; as, quotquot, or quotcunque, how many soever; quantusquantus, 
or quantuscunque, how great soever ; utut, or utcunque, however or howsoever, 
&c. In English, the adverbs here, there, and where, when joined to certain 
participles or prepositions, as, to, of, by, with, in, &c. have the signification of 
pronouns ; as, hereof the same with of this ; thereof the same with of that ; 
whereof of which, &c 

PREPOSITION. 

A Preposition is an indeclinable word, which shows the 
relation of one thing to another. 

There are twenty -eight prepositions in Latin, which govern 
ihe accusative ,• that is, have an accusative after them. 



136 

Ad, 

Apud, 

Ante, 

Adversus, 

Ad vers um, 

Contra, 

Cis, 

Cirra, 

Circa, 

Circum, 

£rga. 

Extra, 

Inter, 

Intra, 



namely, 

A- 
Ab, 

Ate. 



PREPOSITION. 



To. 
At. 

Before. 

Against, towards. 

Against. 

On this side. 

About. 

Towards. 
Without. 

Between, among. 
Within. 



From or by. 

Without. 

With. 

Without the know- 
ledge of. 

Before, in the pres- 
ence cf. 



Infra, 


Beneath. 


Juxta, 


Nigh to. 


Ob, 


For. 


Propter, 


For, hard by. 
By, through. 


Per, 


Praeter, 


' Besides, except. 


Penes, 


In the power -of 


Post, 


After. 


Pone/ 


Behind. 


Sec us, 


By, along. 


Secundum, 


According to. 


Supra, 


Above. 


Trans, 


On the farther side. 


Ultra, 


Beyond. 


vern the ablative are fifteen ; 


De, 


Of, concerning. 


E, 
Ex, 


1 Of, out of. ' 


Pro, 


For. 


Prae, 


Before. 


Palara, 


i With the knowledge 
I of 

Without. 


Sine, 


Tenus, 


Up to, as far as. 



se four govern sometimes the accusative, and some- 
times the ablative. 
In, In. into. Sub, Under. Super, Above. Subter, Beneath. 

Obs. 1. Prepositions are so called, because they are generally placed before 
the word with which they are joined. Some, however, are put after ; as, cum, 
when joined with me, te, se, and sometimes with quo, qui, and quibus: thus, 
I2i£cim, tecum, &c. Tenus is always placed after; as, mento tenus, up to the 
chin. So likewise are versus and usque; and ward, in English; as, toward, 
- ', &c. 

Obs. 2. Prepositions, both in English and Latin, are often compounded with 
other parts of speech, particularly with verbs, as, subire, to undergo. In Eng- 
lish they are frequently put after verbs; as, to go in, to go out, to look to, &c. 

Prepositions are also sometimes compounded together ; as, Ex adversus eum 
ia Ex adversum Athenas, C. Nep. In ante diem quartum. Kalenda- 
rum Decembris distulit, i. e. usque in eum diem, Cic. Supplicatio indicata est 
ex ante diem quintum idus Octob. i. e. ab eo die, Liv. Ex ante pridie idus 
Septemhris, Plin. But prepositions compounded together commonly become 
adverbs or conjunctions ; as, propdlam, protinus, insuper, &c. 

Obs. 3. Prepositions in composition usually retain their primitive significa- 
tion;^?, adeo, to go to; prcepono, to place before. But from this there are 
several exceptions. 1. IN joined with adjectives generally denotes privation ; 
as, infjdus, unfaithful ; but when joined with verbs, increases their significa- 
tion ; as, induro, to harden greatly. In some words, in has two contrary senses ; 
" invoedtus, called upon or not called upon. So infrendtus, immutdtus, insuetus, 
impensus, inhumatus, intentatus, &c. 2. PER commonly increases the significa- 
tion ; as, Percdrus, perceler, perebmis, percuriosus, perdijjicilis, perelegans, per- 
grdtus, pergrdvis, perhospitdlis, perillustris, perlcetus, &c. very dear, very 
swift, &c. 3. PRiE sometimes increases ; as, Pracldrus, prcedwes, prcedulcis, 
prmdurus, prcepinguis, prcevalidus ; prcevdleo, prapolleo; and also EX; as, Ex- 
cldmo, exaggero, exaugeo, excalefaceo, extenuo, exhxldro ; but EX sometimes de- 
notes privation; as, Exsanguis, bloodless, pale; excors, exanimis, -mo, &c. 4. 
SUB often diminishes ; as, Subalbidus, subabsurdus, subamdrus, subdulcis, sub* 
grandis, suhgravis, subniger, &c. a little white or whitish, &c. DE oftea 



CONJUNCTION. 137 

signifies downward ; &s, Decido, decurro, degravo, despicio, delabor : sometimes 
increases; as, deamor, demlror ; and sometimes expresses privation $ as, 15e- 
mens, decolor, deformis, &c. 

Obs. 4. There are five or six syllables, namely, am, di, oar 
dis, re, se, con, which are commonly called Inseparable Pre* 
positions, because they are only to be found in compound 
words : however, they generally add something to the signifi- 
cation of the words with which they are compounded ; thus, 

Am, round about. 

i asunder. 



Di, 

Dis, 

Re, again. 

Se, aside, or apart 

Con, together. 



Ambio, to surround. 
Divello, to pull asunder. 
Distraho, to draw asunder. 
Relego, to read again. 
Sepono, to lay aside. 
Concresco, to grow together. 



INTERJECTION. 

An Interjection is an indeclinable w T ord thrown in between 
the parts of a sentence, to express some passion or emotion of 
the mind. 

Some Interjections are natural sounds, and common to all languages; as, Oh! 
Ah! 

Interjections express in one word a whole sentence, and thus fitly represent 
the quickness of the passions. 

The different passions have commonly different words to express them ; thus, 

1. JOY ; as, evax ! hey, brave, lo ! 

2. GRIEF ; as, ab, hex, heu, ehu ! ah, alas, woe is me ! 

3. WONDER; as, papce ! O strange! vah! hah! 

4. PRAISE; as, euge! well done! 

5. AVERSION; as, apage! away, begone, avaunt, off, fy, tush ! 

6. EXCLAIMING; as, Oh! proh! O! 

7. SURPRISE or FEAR; as, atat! ha, aha! 

8. IMPRECATION; as, vce ! woe, pox on't! 

9. LAUGHTER ; as, ha, ha, he ! 

10. SILENCING; as, au, 'st,pax! silence, hush, 'st! 

11. CALLING ; as, eho, eliodum, io, ho ! soho, ho, O! 

12. DERISION ; as, hui ! away with ! 

13. ATTENTION; as, hem! ha! 

Some interjections denote several different passions ; thus, Vah is used to ex- 
press joy, and sorrow, and wonder, &c. 

Adjectives of the neuter gender are sometimes used for interjections; as, 
Malum ! with a mischief! Infandum ! O shame ! fy, fy ! Miserum, O wretched! 
Nefas ! the villany ! 

CONJUNCTION. 

A Conjunction is an indeclinable word, which serves to 
join sentences together. 

Thus, You and I, and the boy, read Virgil, is one sentence made up of these 
three, by the conjunction and twice employed ; I read Virgil ; You read Vir- 
gil ; the boy reads Virgil. In like manner, " You and I read Virgil, but the boy 
reads Ovid," is one sentence made up of three, by the conjunctions and and but. 

Conjunctions, according to their different meaning, are divided into the fol- 
lowing classes : 

M 2 



138 CONJUNCTION. 

1. COPULATIVE ; as, et, ac, atque, que, and ; Uiam, quoque, item, also ; cum, 
turn, both, and. Also their contraries, nee, neque, neu, neve, neither, nor. 

2. DISJUNCTIVE ; as, aut, ve, vel, seu, sive, either, or. 

3. CONCESSIVE ; as, etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, licet, quanquam, quamvis, though, 
although, albeit. 

4. ADVERSATIVE; as, sed, verum, autem, at, ast, atqui, but; tamen, attamen, 
veruntamen, verumenimvero, yet, notwithstanding, nevertheless. 

5. CAUSAL ; as, nam, namque, enim, for ; quia, quippe, quoniam, because ; 
quod, that, because. 

6. ILLATIVE or RATIONAL; as, ergo, ideo, igitur, idcirco, itaque, there- 
fore ; quapropter, quocirca, wherefore ; proinde, therefore ; cum, quum, seeing, 
since ; quandoquidem, for as much as. 

7. FINAL or PERFECTIVE ; as, ut, uti, that, to the end that. 

8. CONDITIONAL ; as, si, sin, if; dum, modo, dummodo, provided, upon con- 
dition that ; siquidem, if indeed. 

9. EXCEPTIVE or RESTRICTIVE ; as, ni, nisi, unless, except. 

10. DIMINUTIVE; as, saltern, eerie, at least. 

11. SUSPENSIVE or DUBITATIVE ; as, an,anne, num, whether ; ne, annon, 
whether, not ; necne, or not. 

12. EXPLETIVE ; as, autem, vero, now, truly; quidem, equidem, indeed. 

13- ORDINATIVE ; as, deinde, thereafter ; denique, finally ; insuper, more- 
over ; cwterum, moreover, but, how T ever. 

14. DECLARATIVE; as, videlicet, scilicet, nempe, nimirum, &c. to wit, 
namely. 

' Obs. 1. The same w r ords, as they are taken in different views, are both ad- 
verbs and conjunctions. Thus, an, anne, &c. are either interrogative adverbs ; 
as, An scribit i Does he write ? or, suspensive conjunctions ; as, Nescio an scri- 
bal, I know not if he writes. 

Obs. 2. Some conjunctions, according lo their natural order, stand first in a 
sentence ; as, Ac, atque, nee, neque, aut, vel, sive, at, sed, verum, nam, quandoqui- 
dem, quocirca, quare, sin, siquidem, prceterquam, &c. : some stand in the second 
place; as, Autem, vero, quoque, quidem, enim: and some may indifferently be 
put either first or second ; as, Etiam, equidem, licet, quamvis, quanquam, tamers 
attamen, namque, quod, quia, quoniam, quippe, utpote, ut, uti, ergo, ideo,Hgitur, 
idcirco, itaque, proinde, propterea, si, ni, nisi, &c. Hence arose the division of 
them into Prepositive, Subjunctive, and Common. To the subjunctive may be 
added these three, que, ve, ne, which are always joined to some other word, and 
are called Enclitics, because, when put after long syllables, they make the ac- 
cent incline to the foregoing syllable ; as in the following verse, 

Indoctusque pike, discive, trochive, quiescit. Horat. 

But when these enclitic conjunctions come after a short vowel, they do not 
affect its pronunciation ; thus, 

Arbuteos foetus montandque fraga legebant Ovid. 



SYNTAX. OB construction OF WORDS IN SENTENCES. 139 



SENTENCES. 

A SENTENCE is any thought of mind expressed by two 
or more words put together ; as, J read. The boy reads Vir- 
gil- 

That part of grammar which teaches to put words rightly 
together in sentences, is called Syntax or Construction. 

Words in sentences have a twofold relation to one another ; 
namely, that of Concord or Agreement ; and that of Govern- 
ment or Influence. 

Concord, is when one word agrees with another in some 
accidents ; as in gender, number, person, or case. 

Government, is when one word requires another to be put in 
a certain case, or mode. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SYNTAX. 

1. In every sentence there must be a verb and a nomina- 
tive expressed or understood. 

2. Every adjective must have a substantive expressed or 
understood. 

3. All the cases of Latin nouns, except the nominative 
and vocative, must be governed by some other word. 

4. The genitive is governed by a substantive noun express- 
ed or understood. 

5. The dative is governed by adjectives and verbs. 

6. The accusative is governed by an active verb, or by a 
preposition ; or is placed before the infinitive. 

7. The vocative stands by itself, or has an interjection 
joined with it. 

8. The ablative is governed by a preposition expressed or 
understood. 

9. The infinitive is governed by some verb or adjective* - 

10. The genitive or possessive case in English always de- 
pends on some noun ; and the objective or accusative case is 
put after a verb active or a preposition. 

All sentences are either Simple or Compound. 

Syntax, therefore, may be divided into two parts, according 
to the general division of sentences. 



140 AGREEMENT OP WOBDS IN SENTENCES. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

A simple Sentence is that which has but one nominative ; 
and one finite verb, that is, a verb in the indicative, subjunc- 
tive, or imperative mode. 

In a simple sentence there is only one Subject and one 
Attribute. 

The Subject is the word which marks the person or thing 
spoken of. 

The Attribute expresses what we affirm concerning the 
subject ; as, 

Tfie boy reads his lesson : Here, " the boy," is the Subject of discourse, or the 
person spoken of: " reads his lesson," is the Attribute, or what we affirm con- 
cerning the subject. The diligent boy reads his lesson carefully at home. Hero 
we have still the same subject, " the boy," marked by the character of " dili- 
gent" added to it ; and the same attribute " reads his lesson," with the circum- 
stances of manner and place subjoined, " carefully," "at home." 

CONCORD. 

The following words agree together in sentences. 1. A 
substantive with a substantive. 2. An adjective with a sub- 
stantive. 3. A verb with a nominative. 

1. Agreement of one Substantive with another. 

Rule I. Substantives signifying the same thing, 
agree in case ; <as, 

Cicero orator, Cicero the orator. Ciceronis oratbris, Of Cicero -the orator. 
Urbs Athena, The city of Athens. Urbis Athendrum, Of the city Athens. 

2. Agreement of an Adjective with a Substantive. 

II. An Adjective agrees with a substantive, in 
gender, number, and case ; as, 

Bonus vir, a good man. Boni viri, good men. 

Fcemina castu, a chaste woman. Fcemina casta, chaste women. 

Dulce pomum, a sweet apple. Dulciapoma, sweet apples. 

And so through all the cases and degrees of comparison. 
This rule applies also to adjective pronouns and participles; as, Meus liber, 
my book; ager colendus, a field to be tilled ; Plur. Mei libri, agri colendi, &c. 

Obs. 1. The substantive is frequently understood, or its 
place supplied by an infinitive; and then the adjective is 
put in the neuter gender; as, triste, sc. negotium, a sad thing, 
Virg. ; Tuum scire, the same with Tua scientia, thy know- 
ledge, Pers. We sometimes, however, find the substantive 
understood in the feminine ; as, Non posteriores feram> sup* 
partes, Ter. 



AGREEMENT OF WORDS IN SENTENCES. 141 

Obs. 2. An adjective often supplies the place of a substan- , 
tive ; as, Certus amicus, a sure friend ; Bona ferlna, good 
venison ; Summum bonum, the chief good ; Homo being un- 
derstood to amicus, caro to ferlna, and negotium to bonum* A 
substantive is sometimes used as an adjective; as, incola 
turba vocant, the inhabitants. Ovid, Fast, 3. 582. 

Obs. 3. These adjectives, primus, medius, ultimus, extremus^ 
infimus, imus, summus, supremus, reliquus, ccetera, usually 
signify the first part, the middle part, &c. of any thing ; as, 
Media nox, the middle part of the night ; Summa arbor, the 
highest part of a tree. 

Obs. 4. In English the adjective generally goes before the noun ; as, a wis& 
man, a good horse ; unless something depend upon the adjective ; as, food con- 
venient for me ; or the adjective be emphatical; as, Alexander the Great And 
the article goes before the adjective : except the adjectives all, such, and many, 
and others subjoined to the adverbs, so, as? and how ; as, all the men ; many a 
ma?i ; so good a man ; as good a man ; how beautiful a prospect ! or when there 
are two or more adjectives joined to the noun, as, a man learned and religious. 

Obs. 5. Whether the adjective or substantive ought to be placed first in 
Latin, no certain rule can be given. Only if the substantive be a monosyllable 
and the adjective a polysyllable, the substantive is elegantly put first; as, vir 
clarissimus, res prcestantissima, fyc. 

Obs. 6. A substantive, in English, sometimes supplies the place of an adjec- 
tive : as, sea-water, land-fowl, forest-trees, a stone-arch, &c. and' even when no 
hyphen is marked ; as, the London Chronicle, the Edinburgh Magazine. 

Obs. 7, Nouns of measure, number, and weight, are sometimes joined in the 
angular with Numeral Adjectives plural; as, fifty foot ; six score; ten thou* 
Band fathom ; a hundred head ; a hundred weight. We say, by this means, by 
that means ; or, by these means, by those means ; or, by this mean, by that mean, 
as it was used anciently: So, this forty years, for these; these and those kind of 
Vdngs, for this and that. Each, every, either, are always joined with the singu- 
lar number, unless the plural noun convey a collective idea; as, every twelve 
years. 

3. Agreement of a Verb with a Nominative. 

III. A Verb agrees with its Nominative in num- 
ber and person; as, 

ilgolego, I read. Nos legimus, We read. 

Tu scnbis, Thou writest or you write. Vos scribilis, Ye or you write. 
Fraceptor docet, the master teaches. Prceceptores docent, Masters teach. 
And so through all the modes, tenses, and numbers. 

Obs. 1. The nominative of the first and second person in 
Latin is seldom expressed, unless for the sake of emphasis or 
distinction; as, Tu es patronus, tu pater, Ter. Tu legis, ego 
scribo. 

Obs. 2. An infinitive, or some part of a sentence, often 
supplies the place of a nominative ; as, Mentiri est turpe, to 
lie is base; Diu non perlitatum tenuit dictatorem; the sacri- 
fice not being attended with favorable omens, detained iho 



142 AGREEMENT OF WORDS IN SENTENCES. 

dictator for a long time, Li v. 7. 8. Sometimes the neuter pro- 
noun id or illud is added, to express the meaning more strong- 
ly ; as, Facere quce libet, id est esse regent, Sallust. 

Obs. 3. The infinitive mode often supplies the place of the 
third person of the imperfect of the indicative ; as, Milites 
fugere, the soldiers fled, for fugiebant or fugere cceperunt. 
Invidere omnes mihi, for invidebanU 

Obs. 4. A collective noun may be joined with a Verb either 
of the singular or of the plural number ; as, Multitude* stat, 
distant; the multitude stands, or stand. 

W A collective noun, when joined with a verb singular, expresses many consid- 1 
ered as one Whole ; but when joined with a verb plural, signifies many sepa- 
rately, or as individuals. Hence, if an adjective or participle be subjoined to 
the verb, when of the singular number, they will agree both in gender and 
number with the collective noun; but if the verb be plural, the adjective or 
participle will be plural also, and of the same gender with the individuals of 
which the collective noun is composed ,• as, Pars erant ccesi: Pars obnixce tru* 
dunt, sc. formica, Virg. yEn. iv. 406. Magna pars raptce,, sc. virginis, Liv. i. 9. 
Sometimes, however, though more rarely, the adjective is thus used in the 
singular ; as, Pars arduus, Virg. JExi. vii. 624. 

Ojbs. 5. The neuter pronoun it in English, is often the nominative to the verb 
when we speak either of persons or things ; as, It is I; it is he ; it was they; 
it appears; in Latin, Ego sum, ille est, fyc. It is sometimes understood; as, 
maybe for it may be ; as follovjs for as it follows ; as is thought for as it is 
thought, f 

Obs. 6. We often say in English, You was instead of You were: which is a 
great inaccuracy in grammar ; but so frequently used, particularly in common 
conversation, that it seems to be in a manner established by custom. So there's 
two or three of us for there are ; there was more sophists for were ,* great pains 
has been taken for have, &c. 

Accusative before the Infinitive* 

IT IV. The infinitive mode has ^!h accusative be- 
fore it ; as, 

Gaudeo te valere, I am glad that you are well. 

Obs. 1. The particle that in English, is the sign of the 
accusative before the infinitive in Latin, when it comes be- 
tween two verbs, without expressing intention or design- . 
Sometimes the particle is omitted ; as, Aiunt regent adven* 
tare, They say the king is coming, that being understood. 

Obs. 2. The accusative before the infinitive always depends upon some other 
verb, commonly on a neuter or substantive verb; but seldom on a verb taken 
in an active sense. 

Obs. 3. The infinitive,, with the accusative before it, seems sometimes to 
snpply the place of a nominative ; as, Turpe est militem fugere, That a soldier 
should fly is a shameful thing. 

Obs. 4. The infinitive esse or fuisse, must frequently be supplied, especially 
after participles ; as, Hostium exercilum ccesum fusumque cognovi, Cic. Some- 
times both the accusative and infinitive are understood; as, Pollicitus susceptifr 
raw* 8ciL me esse, Ter. s 



AGREEMENT OP WORDS IN SENTENCES. 143 

Obs. 5. The infinitive may frequently be otherwise rendered by the con- 
junctions quod, ut, ne, or quin ; as, Gaudeo te valere, i. e. quod valeas, or propter 
tuam bonam valetudinem : Jubeo vos bene sperare, or ut bene speretis ; Prohibeo 
eum exire, or ne exeat; non dubito eumfecisse, or much better, quinfecerit. Scio 
auodjilius amet, Plaut. for JUium amare. Miror, sipotuit, for eum potuisse, Cic 
Nemo dubitat, ut populus Romanus omnes virtuie superarit, for populum Romor 
num superasse, Nep. Ex animi senteniia juro, ut ego rempublicam non deseram f 
for me non desertwum esse, Li v. xxii. 53. • 

The same Case after a Verb as before it. 

IF V. Any verb may have the same case after 
it as before it ; when both words refer to the same 
as, 



thing ; 



Ego sum discipulus, I am a scholar. 

Tu vocaris Joannes, You are named John. 

Ilia incedit regina, She walks as a queen. 

Scio ilium haberi sapientem, I know that he is esteemed wise. 

Scio vos esse discipulos, I know that you are scholars. 

So Redeo iratus, jaceo supplex ; Evadent digni, they will become worthy ; 
Rempublicam defendi adolescent; nolo esse longus, I am unwilling to be tedi- 
t)us ; Malim videri timidus, qaam parum prudens, Cic. Non licet mihi esse neg- 
ligently Cic. Natura dedit omnibus esse beatis, Claud. Cupio me esse clementem ; 
cupio non puiari mendacem ; Vult esse medium, sc. se, He wishes to be neuter, 
Cic. Disce esse pater ; Hoc est esse patrem ? sc. eum, Ter. Id est, dominum, non 
imperatorem esse, Sallust. 

Obs. 1. This rule implies nothing else but the agreement 
of an adjective with a substantive, or of one substantive with 
another; for those words in a sentence which refer to the 
same object, must always agree together, how much soever 
disjoined. 

Obs. 2. The verbs which most frequently have the same 
case after them as before them, are, 

1. Substantive and neuter verbs; as, Sum, fo, for em, and 
existo ; eo, venio, sto, sedeo, evado, jaceo, fugio, &c. 

2. The passive of verbs of naming, judging, &c. as, Dicor, 
appellor, vocor, nominor, nunciipor, to which add, videor, 
existimor, creor, constituor, salutor, designor, &c. 

These and other like verbs, admit after them only the nominative, accusative, 
or dative. When they have before them the genitive, they have affer them an 
accusative ; as, Interest omnium esse bonos, scil. se, it is the interest of all to be 
good. In some cases we can use either the nom. or accus. promiscuously ; as, 
Cupio, did, doctus or doctum, sc. me dici ; Cupio esse clemens, non puturi men" 
dax ; vult esse medius. 

Obs. 3. When any of the above verbs are placed between two nominatives 
of different numbers, they commonly agree in number with the former; as, 
dos est decern talenta, her dowry is ten talents, Ter. Omnia pontus erunt, Ovid. 
But sometimes with the latter ; as, Amantium ir& amoris integratio est, The 
quarrels of lovers is a renewal of love, Ter. So when an adjective is applied 
to two substantives of different genders, it commonly agrees in gender with 
that substantive which is most the subject of discourse ; as, Oppidum est appth 
latum Possidonia, Plin. Sometimes, however, the adjective agrees with the 
nearer substantive ; as, non omnis error stultitia est dicenda, Cic. 



144 GOVERNMENT OF SUBSTANTIVES* 

Obs. 4. When the infinitive of any verb, particularly the substantive verb 
esse, has the dative before it, governed by an* Impersonal verb, or any other 
word, it may have after it either the dative or the accusative ; as, Licet mihi 
esse beato, I may be happy; or, licet mihi esse beatum, me being understood ; 
thus, licet mihi (me) esse beatum. The dative before esse is often to be supplied ; 
as, licet esse beatum, one may be happy, scil. alicui, or hamini. 

Obs. 5. The poets use certain forms of expression, which are not to be imitated 
in prose ; as, Retulit Ajax Jovis esse pronepos, for Se esse pronepotem, Ovid. Met. 
xii. 141. Cum pateris sapiens emendatusque vocari, for sapientum, &c. Horat. Ep. 
1. 16. 30. Acceptum refero versibus esse nocens, Ovid. Tutumque putavit jam 
bonus esse socer, Lucan. 

Obs. 6. The verb to be in English, has always a nominative case after it ; as, 
ft was I; unless it be of the infinitive mode ; as, / took it to be him. We often 
use, however, this- impropriety in common conversation, It is me, It can't be me, 
It was hint ; for It is I, It cannot be I, It was he. 

GOVERNMENT. 
I. The Government of Substantives* 

VI. One Substantive governs another in the 
genitive, (ivhen the latter substantive signifies a 
different thing from the forpier ;) as, 

Amor Dei, The love of God. Lex naturce, The law of nature. 

Domus C&saris, The house of Caesar, or Caesar's house. 

_Obs. 1. When one substantive is governed by another in the genitive, it ex» 
presses in general the relation of property or possession, and therefore is often 
elegantly turned into a possessive adjective ; as, Domus palris, or paterna, a 
father's house ; Filius heri or herilis, a master's son : and among the poets, Labor 
Herculeus, for Herculis ; Ensis Evandrius, for Emndri.- 

Obs. 2. When the substantive noun in the genitive signifies a person, it may 
be taken either in an active or passive sense ; thus, Amor Dei, The love of God, 
either means the love of God towards us, or our love towards him : So caritas 
pains, signifies either the affection of a father to his children, or theirs to him. 
But often the substantive can only be taken either in an active or in a passive 
sense; thus, Timor Dei, always implies Deus timefur; and Providenlia Dei, 
Deus provided So Caritas ipsius soli, affection to the very soil, Liv. ii. 1. 

Obs. 3. Both the former and latter substantive are sometimes to be under- 
stood ; as, Hectoris Andromache, scil. uxor ; Ventum est ad Vesta, scil. adem or 
templum ; Ventum est tria millia, scil. passuum, three miles. 

Obs. 4. We find the dative often used/ after a verb for the genitive, particu- 
larly among the poets ; as, Ei corpus porrigitur, His body is extended, Virg. 
^En. vi. 596. 

Obs. 5. Some substantives are joined with certain prepositions ; as, Amicitia, 
inimicitia pax, cum aliquo ; Amor in vel erga, aliquem ; Gaudium de re ; Cura 
de aliquo ; Mentio illius, vel de illo ; Quies ab armis ; Fumus ex incendiis ; Pre- 
dator ex sociis, for sociorum, Sail us t, &c. 

Obs. 6. The genitive in Latin is often rendered in English by several other 
particles besides of; as, Descensus Averni, the descent to Avernus ; Prudentia 
juris, skill in the law. 

SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS are governed in the geni- 

tive like substantive nouns ; as, pars mei y a part of me. 

So also adjective pronouns, when used as substantives, or having a noun 
understood ; as, Liber ejus, iUius, hujus, &c» The book of him, or his book, set 



GOVERNMENT OF SUBSTANTIVES. 145 

hominis: The book of her, or her book, sc. foemiruB ; Libri eorum v. earum, 
their books ; Cujus liber, the book of whom, or whose books ; Quorum libri, 
whose books, &c. But we always say, meus liber, not mei ; pater nosier, not 
nostri ; suumjus, not sui. 

When a passive sense is expressed, we use mei,tui, sui, nostri, vestri, nos- 
trum, vestrum ; but we use their possessives when an active sense is expressed ; 
as, amor mei, The love of me, that is, the love wherewith I am loved ; Amor 
meus, My love, that is, the love wherewith I love. We find, however, the 
possessives sometimes used passively, and their primitives taken actively ; as, 
Odium tuum. Hatred of thee, Ter. Phorm. v. 8. 27. Labor mei, My labor, 
Plaut. 

The possessives meus, tuus, suus, noster, vester, have sometimes nouns, pro- 
nouns, and participles after them in the genitive ; as, Pectus tuum hominis, sim- 
pticis, Cic. Phil. ii. 43. Noster duorum eventus, Li v. Tuum ipsius studium, 
Cic Mea scripta, timentis, &c. Hor. Solius meum peccatum corrigi non potest, 
Cic. Id maxime quemque decet, quod est cujusque suum maxime. Id. 

The reciprocals SUI and SUUS are used when the action of the verb is re- 
flected as it. were upon its nominative, as, Cato interfecit se. Miles defendit 
suam vitam ; Dicit se scripturum esse. We find, however* is or ille sometimes " 
used in examples of this kind ; as, Deum cdgnoscimus ex operibus ejus, Cic. Per- 
suadent Rauracis, ut una cum iis prqficiscantur, for una secum, Caes. 

VII. If the latter Substantive have an Adjective 
of praise or dispraise joined with it, they may be 
put in the genitive or ablative ; as, 

Vir summce prudentice, or summa, prudentia, A man of great wisdom. 
Puer probce indolis, or proba, indole, A boy of a good disposition. 

Obs. 1. The ablative here is not properly governed by the foregoing substan- 
tive, but by some preposition understood ; as, cum, de, ex, in, fyc. Thus, Vir 
summa prudentia, is the same with vir cum summa prudentia. 

Obs. 2. In some phrases the genitive is only used ; as, Magni formica laboris, 
the laborious ant ; Vir imi subsellii, homo minimi pretii, a person of the low T est 
rank. Homo nullius stipendii, a man of no experience in war. Sallust. Non 
multi cibi hospitem accipies, sed midti joci, Cic. Ager trium jugerum. In 
others only the ablative ; as, Es bono animo, Be of good courage. Mira sum 
alacritate ad litigandum, Cic. Capite aperto est, His head is bare ; obvoluto, cov- 
ered. Capite et supercilio semper est rasis, Id. Mulier magna nata, Liv. Some- 
times both are used in the same sentence ; as, Adolescens eximia spe, summce 
virtutis, Cic. The ablative more frequently occurs in prose than the genitive. 

Obs. 3. Sometimes the adjective agrees in case with the former substantive, 
and then the latter substantive is put in the ablative ; thus, we say, either, Vir 
prcestantis ingenii, or prcestanti ingenio ; or Vir prcestans ingenio, and some- 
times prcestans ingenii. Among the poets, the latter substantive is frequently 
put in the accusative by 'a Greek construction, secundum, or quod ad, being un- 
derstood by the figure commonly called Synecdoche ; as, Miles fractus membra, 
i. e. fractus secundum or quod ad membra, or habens membra fracta, Horat. Os 
humerosque deo similis, Virg. 

Adjectives taken as Substantives. 

VIII. An adjective in the neuter gender without 
a substantive governs the genitive ; as, 

Multum pecunice, Much money. Quid rei est ? What is the matter? 

Obs. 1. This manner of expression is more elegant than Multa pecunia, and 
therefore is much used by the best writers ; as, Plus eloquentice, minus sapien- 

N 



146 GOVERNMENT OP ADJECTIVES. 

ti/B, tantumfidei, id negotii; quicquid eratpatrum, reos dicer es, Liv. Id loci; Ad 
hoc cetatis, Sallust. 

Obs. 2. The adjectives which thus govern the genitive like substantives, 
generally signify quantity ; as, multum, plus, plurimum, tantum, quantum, minus, 
minimum, &c. To which add, hoc, illud, istud, id, quid, aliquid, quidvis, quid' 
dam, &c Plus and quid almost always govern the genitive, and, therefore, by 
some are thought to be substantives. 

Obs. 3. Nihil and these neuter pronouns quid, aliqnid, &c. elegantly govern 
neuter adjectives of the first and second declension in the genitive ; as, nihil 
sinceri, no sincerity; but seldom govern, in this manner, adjectives of the third 
declension, particularly those which end in is ande; as, Nequid hostile time* 
rent, not hoslilis; we find, however, quicquid civilis, Liv. v. 3. 

Obs. 4. Plural adjectives of the neuter gender also govern the genitive, com- 
monly the genitive plural; as, Angusta viarum, Opaca locorum, Telluris operta, 
loca being understood. So Amara curarum, acuta belli, sc. negotia, Horat. An 
adjective, indeed, of any gender, may have a genitive after it, with a substan- 
tive understood ; as, Amicus Ccesaris, Patria Ulyssis, &c. 

Opus and Usus. 

IX. Opus and Usus, signifying need, require the 
ablative; as, 

Est opus pecunia, There is need of money. Usus viribus, Need of strength, 

Obs. 1. Opus and usus are substantive nouns, and do not govern the ablative 
of themselves, but by some preposition, as pro or the like, understood. They 
sometimes, also, although more rarely, govern the genitive ; as, Lectionis opus 
est, Quinct. Operce usus est, Liv. 

Obs. 2. Opus is often construed like an indeclinable adjective ; as, Dux nobis 
opus est, We need a general, Cic. Dices nummos mihi opus esse, Id. Nobis ex* 
empla opus sunt. Id. 

Obs. 3. Opus is elegantly joined with the perfect participle ; as, opus matu* 
rato, Need of haste ; Opus consullo, Need of deliberation; Quid facto usus est? 
Ter. The participle has sometimes a substantive joined with it ; as, Mi hi opus 
fuit Hirtio convento, It behoved me to meet with Hirtius, Cic. 

Obs. 4. Opus is sometimes joined with the infinitive,, or the subjunctive with 
ut ; as, Siquid forte sit, quod opus sit sciri, Cic. Nunc tibi opus est, cegram ut te 
adsimules, Plaut. Sive opus est imperitare equis, Horat. It is often placed ab- 
solutely, i. e. without depending on any other word ; as, sic opus est ; si opus 
sit, &e, 

II. Government of Adjectives. 
1. Adjectives governing the Genitive, 

X. Verbal adjectives, or such as signify an af- 
fection of the mind, govern the genitive; , as, 

Avidus glories, Desirous of glory. Ignarus fraudis^ Ignorant of fraud. 

Memor beneficiorum, Mindful of favors. 

To this rule belong,!. Verbal adjectives in AX: as, m- 
pax, edax,ferax, tenax, pertinax, &c. and certain participial 
adjectives in NS and TUS ; as, avians, appetens, cupiens, in* 
solens, sciens ; consultus, doctus, expertus, insuetus, insolitus, 
&c. II. Adjectives expressing various affections of the mind , 



GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 147 

1. Desire ; as, avarus, cupidus, studiosus, &c. 2. Knowledge, 
ignorance, and doubting; as, callidus, certus, certior, con- 
scius, gnarus, perltus, prudens, &c. Ignarus, foicertus, in- 
scius, imprudens, imperitus, immemor, rudis ; ambiguus, du- 
bius, suspensus, &c. 3. Care and diligence, and the con- 
trary ; as, anxiug, curiosus, solicitus, providus, diligens ; in- 
curiosus, securus, negligens, &c. 4. Fear and confidence ; as, 
formidolosus, pavidus, timidus, trepidus; impavidus, interri- 
tus, intrepidus. 5. Guilt and innocence ; as, noxius, reus, 
suspectus, compertus ; innoxius, innocens, insons. 

To these add many adjectives of various significations; as, &ger animi ; ar° 
dens, audax, aversus, diversus, egregius, erectus, falsus, felix, fessus, furens, 
ingens, integer, Icetus, prcestans animi ; modicus voti ; integer vitce ; seri studi- 
orum, Hor. But we say, ceger pedibus, ardens in cupiditatibus, prcestans doctri- 
na, modicus cultu; Lcetus negotio, de re, or propter rem, &c. and never cEger 
pedum, &c. 

Obs. 1. Verbals in NS are used both as adjectives and par- 
ticiples ; thus, patiens algoris, able to bear cold ; and patiens 
algorem, actually bearing cold. So amans virtutis, and avians 
mrtutem : doctus grammaticce, skilled in grammar ; doctus 
grammaticam, one who has learned it. 

Obs. 2. Many of these adjectives vary their construction; as, avidus inpecu- 
niis, Cic. Aviolior ad rem, Ter. Jure consuUus § peritus, or juris, Cic. Rudis 
literurum, injure dvaJJ, Cic. Rudis arte, ad mala, Ovid. Doctus iMinl, Latinis 
Uteris, Cic. Assuetus labore, in omnia, Liv. Mensce herili, Virg. Insuetus mo- 
ribus Romanis, in the dat. Liv. Laboris, ad onera portanda, Caes. Desuetus 
hello, & triumphis, in the dat. or abl. rather the dat. Virg, Anocius, solicitus, se- 
curus, de re aliqua ; diligens, in, ad, de, Cic. Negligens in aliquem, in or de re ; 
Reus de vi, criminibus, Cic. Certior foetus de re, rather than rei, Cic. 

Obs. 3. The genitive after these adjectives is thought to be governed by 
causa-, in re, or in negotio, or some such word understood; as, Cupidus laudis, 
i. e. causa or in re vaudis, desirous of praise, that is, on account of, or in the 
matter of praise. But many of the adjectives themselves may be supposed to 
contain in their own signification the force of a substantive ; thus, studiosus pe~ 
cunia, fond of money, is the same with hahens studium pecuniae, having a fond- 
ness for money. 

XI. Partitives, and words placed partitively, 
comparatives, superlatives, interrogatives, and 
some numerals, govern the genitive plural ; as, 

Aliquis philosopkorum, Some one of the philosophers. 

Senior fratrum, The elder of the brothers. 

Doctissimus Romanorum, The most learned of the Romans, 

> Quis nostrum? Which of us ? 

Una musarum, One of the muses, 

Octavus sapientum, The eighth of the wise men* 

Adjectives are called Partitives, or are said to be placed 
partitively, when they signify a part of any number of per- 
sons or things, having after them, in English, of or among ; 
as, alius, nulluS) solus, &c. quis and qui, with their compounds : 



148 GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 

also, Comparatives, Superlatives, and some Numerals; as, 
unus, duo, tres ; primus, secundus, &c. To these add multz, 
pauci, plurique, medius. 

Obs. 1. Partitives, &c. agree in gender with the substantive which they have 
after them in the genitive ; but when there are two substantives of different 
genders, the partitive, &c. rather agrees with the former ; as, Indus fluminum 
maximus, Cic. Rarely with the latter ; as, Delpkinus animalium velocissimum, 
Plin. The genitive here is governed by ex numero, or by the same substantive 
understood in the singular number ; as, Nulla sororum, scil. soror, or ex numero 
sororum. 

Obs. 2. Partitives, &c. are often otherwise construed with the prepositions, de, 
e, ex, or in ; as, Unus de fratribus ; or by the poets, with ante or inter ; as, PvL- 
cherrimus ante (mines, for omnium, Virg. Primus inter (mines, Id. 

Obs. 3. Partitives, &c. govern collective nouns in the genitive singular, and 
are of the same gender with the individuals of which the collective noun is- 
composed ,• as, Vir fortissimus nostra civitatis, Cic. Maximus stirpis, Li v. Ul~ 
timos orbis Britannos, Horat. ed. 4. 35. 29. 

Obs. 4. Comparatives are used, when we speak of two; Superlatives when 
we speak of more than two; as, Major fratrum, the elder of the brothers, 
meaning two; Maximus f rat rum, the eldest of the brothers, meaning more than 
two. In like manner, uter, alter, neuter, are applied with regard to two ; quis, 
unus, alius, nullus, with regard to three or more ; as, Uter vestrum, Whether 
or which of you two ; Quis vestrum, Which of you three ; but these are some- 
times taken promiscuously the one for the other. 

Adjectives governing the Dative. 

XII. Adjectives signifying profit or disprofit, 
likeness or unlikeness, &c. govern the dative ; as, 

Utilis hello, Profitable for war. 

Perniciosus reipublicce, Hurtful to the commonwealth. 

, Similis patri, Like to his father. 

Or thus, Any adjective may govern the dative in Latin> 
which has the signs TO or FOR after it in English. 

To this rule belong: 

1. Adjectives of profit or disprofit; as, Benignus, bonus, commodus, felix, fruc- 

tuosus, prosper, saluber. Calamitosus, damnosus, dims, exitiosus, funestus, 

incommodus, malus, noxius, perniciosus, pestifer. 

2. Of pleasure or pain ; as, Acceptus, dulcis, gratus, gratiosus, jucundus, 

Icetus, suavis. Acerbus, amarus, insuavis, injucundus, ingratus, moleslus, 

tristis. 

3. Of friendship or hatred ; as, Addictus, cequus, amicus, benevolus, blandus, 

carus, deditus, jidus, fidelis, lenis, mitis, propitius. Adversus, cemulus, 

asper, crudelis, contrarius, infensus, infestus, infidus, immitis, inimicus, iniquus, 
invisus, invidus, iratus, odiosus, suspectus, trux. 

4. Of clearness or obscurity ; as, Apertus, certus, compertus, conspicuus, manU 
fesius, notus, perspicuus. Ambiguus, dubius, ignotus, incertus, obscurus. 

5. Of nearness; as, Finitimus, proprior, proximus, propinquus, socius, vicinus. 

6. Of fitness or unfitness ; as, Aptus, appositus, accommodatus, habilis, ido 
neus, opportunus. Ineptus, inhabilis, importunus, inconveniens. 

7. Of ease or difficulty ; as, Facilis, levis, obvius, pervius. Diffwilis, ar 

duus, gravis, laboriosus, periculosus, invius. To these add such as signify pro- 
pensity or readiness ; as, Pronus, proclivis, propensus, promptus, paraius, 



GOVERNMENT OP ADJECTIVES. 149 

8. Of equality or inequality,- as, JEqualis, cequcsvus, par, compar, suppar. 
—Inequalis, impar, dispar, discors. Also of likeness or unlikeness ; as, Si- 
milis, cemulus, geminus. JDissimUis, absonus, alienus, diversus, discolor. 

9. Several adjectives compounded with CON; as, Cognatus, concolor, con- 
cors, conjlnis, corigruus, consanguineus, consentaneus, consonus, conveniens, con- 
tiguus, continuus, continens, contiguous ; as, Mari air continent est, Cic. 

To these add many other adjectives of various significations ; as, Obnoxius, 
subjectus, supplex, credulus, absurdus, decorus, deformis, prcesto, indecl. at hand, 
secundus, &c. — particularly. 

Verbals in bilis, and dus govern the dative ; as, 

Amandus vel amabilis omnibus, To be loved by all men. 

So Mors est terribilis malis ; Optabilis omnibus pax ; Adhibenda est nobis dili- 
gentia, Cic. Semel, omnibus calcanda est via lethi, Hor. Also some participles 
of the perfect tense ; as, Bella matribus detestata, hated by, Hor. 

Verbals in DUS are often construed with the prep, a ; as, Deus est veneran- 
dus, fy colendus a nobis, Cic. Perfect participles are usually so ; as, Mors Crassi 
est a multis defieta, rather than, multis defieta, Cic. A te invitatus, rogatus, pro- 
ditus, &c. hardly ever tibi. 

Obs. 1. The dative is properly not governed by adjectives, 
nor by any other part of speech : but put after them, to ex- 
press the object to which their signification refers. 

The particle to, in English, is often to be supplied ; as, 
Similis patri, Like his father, to being understood. 

Obs. 2. Substantives have likewise sometimes a dative after 
them ; as, Me est pater, dux vel filius mihi, He is father, 
leader, or son to me : so, Presidium reis, decus amicis y &c. 
Hor. Exitium pecori, Virg. Virtutibus hostis, Cic. 

Obs. 3. The following adjectives have sometimes the dative 
after them, and sometimes the genitive ; Affinis, similis, com- 
munis, par, proprius, finitimus, fidus, conterminus, superstes, 
conscius, cequalis, contrarius, and adversus ; as, Similis tibi^ 
or tui ; Superstes patri, or patris ; Conscius facinori, or faci- 
noris. Conscius, and some others, frequently govern both the 
genitive and dative ; as, Mens sibi conscia recti. We say, 
Similes, dissimiles, pares, dispares, cequales, communes, inter 
se : Par 8? communis cum aliquo. Civitas secum ipsa discors; 
discordes ad alia. Liv. 

Obs. 4. Adjectives signifying usefulness, or fitness, and the 
contrary, have after them the dative or the accusative with a 
preposition ; as, 

Utilis, inutilis, aptus, ineptus, accommodatus, idoneus, habilis, inhabilis, oppor- 
tunus, conveniens, &c. alicui rei, or ad aHauid. Many other adjectives govern- 
ing the dative are likewise construed with prepositions ; as, Attentus qucesitis, 
Hor. Attentus ad rem, Ter. 

Obs. 5. Of adjectives which denote friendship or hatred, or any other affec- 
tion of the mind towards any one. I. Some are usually construed with the 
dative only; as, Affabilis, arrogans, asper, carus, dijjicilis, fidelis, invisus, oratus, 
ojfensus, suspectus, ALICUI. II. Some with the preposition IN and the accu- 
2 N 



150 GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 

sative ; as, Acerbus, animatus, beneficus, gratiosus, injuriosus, liberalis, mendax, 
TTtisericors, ojficiosus, pius, impius, prolixus, severus, sordidus, torvus, vehement, 
IN ALIQUEM. III. Some either with the dative, or with the accus. and the 
preposition IN, ERGA, or ADVERSUS going before ; as, Contumax, crimino- 
us, durus, exiliabiliS) gravis, hospitalis, wlplacabilis, (and perhaps also inexora- 
bilis and intolerabilis) iniquus, scbvus, ALICUI or IN ALIQUEM. Benevdus, 
benignus, molestus, ALICUI or ERGA ALIQUEM. Mitis, comis, IN or ERGA 
ALIQUEM and ALICUI. Pervicax ADVERSUS ALIQUEM. Crudelis, 
IN ALIQUEM, seldom ALICUI. Amicus, cemulus, infensus, infestus, ALL 
CUI, seldom IN ALIQUEM. Gratus ALICUI, or IN, ERGA, ADVERSUS, 
ALIQUEM. We say, alienus alicui or alicujus ; but oftener ab aliquo, and 
sometimes aliquo without the preposition. 

AUDIENS is construed with two datives; as, Regi dido audiens erat, he 
was obedient to the king, not regis ; Diclo audiens fuit jussis magistratuum, Nep. 
Nobis diclo audientes sunt, not dictis, Cic. 

Obs. 6. Adjectives signifying motion or tendency to a thing, 
have usually after them the accusative with the preposition ad 
or in, seldom the dative ; as, 

Pronus, propensus, proclivis, celer, tardus, piger, fyc. ad iram, or in iram. 

Obs. 7. Propior and proximus, in imitation of their primi- 
tive prope, often govern the accusative ; as, Propior montem, 
scil. ad, Sal. Proximus Jinem, Liv. 

Obs. 8. IDEM sometimes has the dative, chiefly in the poets ; as, Invitum 
qui servat, ia\m facit occidenti, Hor. Jupiter omnibus idem, Virg. Eadem illis 
censemus, Cic. But in prose we commonly find idem qui, et, ac, atque, and 
also ut, cum; as, Penpatetici quondam iidem erant qui Academici, Cic. Est 
animus erga te, idem ac fuit, Ter. Dianam fy Lunam eandem esse putant, Cic. 
Idem faciant, ut, &e. In eodem loco mecum, Cic. But it would be improper to 
say of the same person or thing under different names, idem cum ; as, Luna eadem 
est cum Diana. 

Wo likewise say, alius, ac, atque or et ; and so sometimes similis ty par. 

3. Adjectives governing the Ablative, 

XIII. These Adjectives, dignus, indignus* con- 
tentus, prceditus, captus, and fretus; also natus, 
satus, ortus, editus, and the like, govern the abla- 
tive ; as, 

Dignus honore, worthy of honor. Captus oculis, blind. 

Contentus parvo, content with little. Fretus viribus, trusting to his strength. 

Pr&ditus virtute % endued with virtue. Ortus regibus, descended of kings. 

So generatus, creatus, cretus, prognatus, oriundus, procrealus regibus. 

Obs. 1. The ablative after these adjectives is governed by some preposition 
understood ; as, Contentus parvo, scil. cum ; Fretus viribus, scil. in; fyc. Some- 
times the preposition is expressed; as, Ortus ex concubina, Sallust. Editus de 
nymplia, Ovid. « 

Obs. 2. Dignus, indignus, and contentus, have sometimes the genitive after 
them ; as, dignus avorum, Virg. So Macte esto, or macti estate virtutis or virtute. 
Increase in virtue, or Go on an$ prosper ; Juberem made virtute esse, sc. te, 
Liv. ii: 12. In the last example macte seems to be used adverbially. 



GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 151 

4, Adjectives governing the Genitive or Ablative* 

XIV. Adjectives of plenty or want govern the 
genitive or ablative; as, 

Plenus irce or ira, Full of anger. Inops rationis or ratione, Void of reason. 

So non inopes temporis, sed prodigi sumus, Sen. Lentulus non verbis inops, 
Cic. Dei plena sunt omnia, Cic. Maxima quceque domus servis est plena superbis* 
Juv. Res est soliciti plena timoris amor, Ovid. Amor ty melle fyfelle est fcecun- 
dissimus, Plaut. Fecunda virorum paupertas fugitur, Lucan. Omnium concili' 
orum ejus particeps, Curt. Homo ratione particeps, Cic. Nihil insidiis vacuum, 
Id. Vacuus cadis habete manus, Ovid. 

Some of these adjectives are construed, 1. With the genitive only; as, Benig- 
nus, exsors, impos, impotens, irrilus, liberalis, munificus, prcelargus. 

2. With the ablative only; Beatus differtus,frugifer, mutilus, tenlus, distentus, 
tumitus, turgidus. 

3. With the genitive more frequently ; Compos, consors, egenus, exh&res, elo- 
pers, fertilis, indigus, parens, pauper, prodigus, sterilis. 

4. With the ablative more frequently ; Abundans, cassus, extorris, foetus, f re* 
quens, gravis, gravidas, jejunus, liher, locuples, nudus, oneratus, onustus, orbus, 
pollens, solutus, truncus, viduus, and captus. 

5. With both promiscuously; Copiosus, dives, foecundus,ferax,immunis,inanis, 
inops, largus, modicus, immodicus, nimius, opulentus, plenus, potens, refertus, so- 
tus, vacuus, uber. v 

6. With a preposition ; as, Copiosus, jirmus, paratus, imparalus, inops, inslrwy 
tus, a. re aliqua ; for quod ad rem aliquam attinet, in or with respect to any thing. 
Extorris ab solo patrio, banished ; Orba ab optimatibus concio, Liv. So pauper, 
tenuis, foecundus, modicus, parcus, in re aliqua. Immunis, inanis, liber, nudus, 
solutus, vacuus, a re aliqua. Potens ad rem, #• in re. 

GOVERNMENT OP VERBS. 

§ 1. Verbs governing only one Case. 
1. Verbs which govern the Genitive. 

XV. Sum, when it signifies possession, property, 
or duty, governs the genitive ; as, 

Est regis, It belongs to the king, It is the part or property of a king. 

So Insipientis est dicere, non putaram, It is the part or property of a fool, && 
Militum est suo duci parere, It is the part or duty of soldiers, &c. Laudare ss 
vani ; vituperare stulti est, Sen. Hominis est errare ; Arrogantis est negligem 
quid- de se quisque sentiat, Cic. Pecus est Melibozi, Virg. Hcec sunt hominis, Ter. 
Pauperis est numerare pecus, Ovid. Temeritas est Jlorenlis cetatis, prudentia 
senectutis, Cic. 

IT Meum, tuum, suum, nostrum, vestrum, are excepted ; as, 

Tuum est, It is your duty. Scio tuum esse, I know that it is your duty. 

Obs. 1. These possessive pronouns are used in the neuter 
gender instead of their substantives, mei, tui, sui, nostri, ves- 
tri. Other possessives are also construed in this manner ; as, 
Est regium, est humanum, the same with est regis, est hominis* 
Etfacere etpatifortia } Romanum est, Liv. ii. 12. 



152 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

Obs. 2. Here some substantives must be understood ; as, officium, munus, res, 
negotium, opus, &c. which are sometimes expressed ; as, Munus est principum ; 
Tuum est hoc munus, Cic. Neutiquam officium liberi esse^hominis puto, Ter. In 
some cases, the preceding substantive may be repeated ; as, Hie liber est (liber) 
fratris. In like manner, some substantive must be supplied in such expres- 
sions as these ; Ea sunt modo gloriosa, neque patrqndi belli, scil. causa or facta. 
Sail. Nihil tarn cequandce libertatis est, for ad cequandam libertatem pertinet, Li v. 

Obs. 3. We say, Hoc est tuum munus, or tui muneris: So 
77105 est velfuit, or moris, or in more, Cic. 

XVI. Misereor, miseresco, and satago, govern 
the genitive j as, 

Miserere civium tuorum, Pity your countrymen. 

<2„**„i4 ~™» c*,,^,™ / ( He has his hands full at home, or has 

Satagit rerumsuarwm, J enough tQ do about ^ Qwn ^^ 

Obs. 1. Several other verbs among the poets govern the genitive by a Greek 
construction, particularly such as signify some affection of the mind; as, Anga, 
decipior, desipio, discrucior, excrucio, /alio ty fallor, fastidio, invideo, Icelor, mi' 
ror, pendeo, studeo, vereor ; as, Ne angas te animi, Plaut. Laborum decipitur, 
Hor. Discrucior animi, Ter. Pendet mihi animus, pendeo animi vel animo ; 
but we always say, Pendemus animis, not animorum, are in suspense, Cic. Jus- 
titicB prius mirer, Virg. In like manner, Abstineo, desino, desisto, quiesco, regno : 
likewise, adipiscor, condico, credo, frustror, furo, laudo, liberor, levo, participa, 
prohibeo : as, Abstineto irarum ; Desine querelarum ; Regnavit populorum, Hor. 
Desistere pugnce, Virg. Quarum rerum condixit, Li v. 

But all these verbs are for the most part differently construed ; thus, Angor^ 
desipio, discrucior, fallor, animo. Hoc animum meum excruciat. Fastidio, mi' 
ror, vereor, aliquem vel aliquid. Lcetor aliqua re. Some of them are joined 
with the infinitive ; or with quod, ut, ne, and the subjunctive. 

In like manner, we usually say, Desino aliquid, fy ab aliquo, to give over; 
Desisto incepio, de negotio, ab ilia mente ; Quiesco a labore ; Regnare in equiti- 
bus, oppidis, sc. in, Cic. Per urbes, Virg. Adipisci id ; Frustrari in re ; Furere 
de aliquo, Cic. 

Obs. 2. The genitive after verbs, in the same manner as after adjectives, is 
governed by some substantive understood. This substantive is different accord- 
ing to the different meaning of the verbs ; thus, Misereor fratris, scil. causa, ; 
Angor animi, scil. dolore or anxietate. 

2. Verbs governing the Dative. 

XVII. Any verb may govern the dative in Latin 
which has the signs TO or FOR after it in Eng- 
lish; as, 

Finis venit imperio^ An end is come to the empire, Liv. 

Animus redit hostibus, Courage returns to the enemy, Id. 

Tibi seris, tibi metis, You sow for yourself, you reap for yourself, Plaut. 

So, Non nobis solum nati sumus, Cic. Multa male eveniunt bonis, Id. 

Sol lucet etiam sceleratis, Sen. Hceret lateri lethalis arundo, Virg. 

But as the dative after verbs in Latin is not always rendered in English by 
to or for, and as these particles are not always the sign of the dative in Latin* 
it will be necessary to be more particular. 

I. Sum, and its compounds, govern the dative j 
(except possum) as, 



GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 153 

Prafuit exercitui, He commanded the army. 

Ad/uit precibus, He was present at prayers. 

IT EST taken for Habeo, to have, governs the 
dative of a person ; as, 

Est mihi liber, A book is to me,, that is, I have a book. 

Sunt mihi libri, Books are to me, i. e. I have books. 

Dico libros esse mihi, I say that I have books. 

This is more frequently used than habeo librum; habeo 
Mbros. In like manner deest instead of careo ; as, Liber 
deest mihi, I want a book. Libri desunt mihi ; Scio libros 
deesse mihi, &c. 

II. Verbs compounded with satis, bene, and male, govern 
the dative ; as, 

Satisfacio, satisdo, benefacio, benedico, benevelo, malefacio, mdledico, tibi, &c. 

III. Many verbs compounded with these nine prepositions^ 
Ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, prjg, sub, and super, govern 
the dative ; as, 

1. Accedo, accresco, accumbo, acquiesco, adno, adnato, adequito, adhcereo, adsto, 
adstipulor, advolvor, affulgeo, allabor, allaboro, annuo, appareo, applaudo, appro- 
pinquo, arrideo, aspiro, assentior, assideo, assisto, assuesco, assurgo. 

2. Aniecello, anteeo, antesio, anteverto, 

3. Colludo, concino, consono, convivo. 

4. Incumbo indormio, indubito, inhio, ingetnisco, inhcereo, insideo, insidior, in* 
sfo, insisto, insudo, insulto, invigilo, illachrymo, illudo^ immineo, immorior, im~ 
moror, impendeo. 

5. Intervenio, intermico, intercedo, intercido, inlerjaceo. 

6. Obrepo, obluctor, obstrecto, obstrepo, obmurmuro, occumbo, occurro, occurso, 
obsto, obsisto, obvenio. 

7. Prcecedo, prcecurro, prceeo, prcesideo, praluceo, prceniteo, prcesto, prcevaleo, 
prceverto. 

8. Succedo, succumbo, sufficio, suffragor, subcresco, suboleo, subjacio, subrepo. 

9. Supervenio, supercurro, supersto. But most verbs compounded with SU- 
PER govern the accusative. 

IV. Verbs govern the dative, which signify, 

1 . To profit or hurt ; as, 

Proficio, prosum, placeo, commodo, prospicio, caveo, metuo, timeo, consulo, for 
prospicio. Likewise, Noceo, officio, incommodo, displicep, insidior. 

2. To favor or assist, and the contrary ; as, 

Faveo, gratulor, gratificor, grator, ignosco, indulgeo, parco, adulor, plaudo, 
blandior, lenocinor, palpor, assentor, subparasitor. Likewise, Auxilior, admini- 
color, subvenio, succurro, patrocinor, medior, medicor, opitulor. Likewise, Dero* 
go, detraho, invideo, (Bmulor. 

3. To command and obey, to serve and resist ; as, 

Tmpero, pr&cipioi mando, moderor, for modum adhibeo. Likewise, Pareo, aits* 
eulto, obedio, obsecpior, obtempero, moremgero, morigeror, obsecundo. Likewise, 
Famulor, servio, inservio, ministro, ancillor. Likewise, Repugno, obsto, reluctate 
renitor, resisto, refragor, adversor. 



154 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

4. To threaten and to be angry ; as, 

Minor, comrriinor, interminor, irascor, succenseo. 

5. To trust ; as, Fido, confldo, credo, diffido. 

To these add, Nubo, excello, hcereo, supplico, cedo, despero, operor, prcestolor, 
prevaricor, recipio, to promise ; renuncio, respondeo, to answer or satisfy; tern- 
pero, studeo, vaco, to apply ; convicior. 

Exc. Jubeo,juvo, Icedo, and offendo, govern the accusative. 

Obs. 1. Verbs governing the dative only are either neuter 
verbs, or of a neuter signification. Active verbs governing 
the dative have also an accusative expressed or understood. 

Obs. 2. Most verbs governing the dative only have been enumerated, because 
there are a great many verbs compounded with prepositions, which do not 
govern the dative, but are otherwise Construed ; and still more signifying advan- 
tage or disadvantage, &c. which govern the accusative ; as, Levo, erigo, alo, 
nutrio, amo, diligo, vexo, crucio, averso, &c. aliquem, not alicui. 

Obs. 3. Many of these verbs are variously construed ; particularly such as 
are compounded with a preposition ; as, 
Anteire, antecedere, antecellere, praecedere, praecurrere, praeire, &c. alicui, or 

aliquem, to go before, to excel. 
Aequiescere, rei, re, v. in re. Adequitare portae; Syracusas. 
Adjacere mari, v. mare, to lie near. 
Adnare navibus, naves, ad naves, to swim to. 
Adversari ei, rarely eum, to oppose. 
Advolvi genibus, genua, ad genua, to fall at one's knees, 
^.dvolare ei, ad eum, rostra, to fly up to, 

Adflare rei v. homini ; rem v. hominem ; aliquid alicui, to breathe upon, 
Adulari ei v. eum, to flatter. Allabi oris ; aures ejus, Virg. ad exta, Liv, 
Apparere eonsuli, to attend ; ad solium Jovis; Res apparet mini, appears, 
Appropinquare BritanniaB, portam, ad portam, to approach. 
Congruere alicui, cum re aliqua, inter se, to agree. 
Dominari cunctis oris, Virg. ; in caetera animalia, to rule over, Ovid. 
Fidere, eonfldere alicui rei, aliqua, re, in re, to trust to or in. 
Ignoscere mihi, culpae meae, mihi culpam, to pardon me or my fault. 
Impendere alicui, aliquem, in aliquem, to hang over. 
Incessit cura, cupido, timor ei, eum v. in eum, seized. 
Incumbere toro : gladium, in gladium, to fall upon; labor! ad laudem, ad studia, 

in studium, curam, cogitationem, &c. to apply to. 
Indulgere alicui id ei ; nimio vestitu, to indulge in, Tex. 
Inhiare auro, bona ejus, to gape after. Inasci agris, in agris, to grow in. 
Inniti rei, re, in re ; in aliquem, to depend on. 
Insultare rei & homini, v. hominem ; fores ; patientiam ejus, in miseriam ejus ; 

bonos, to insult over. 
Latet res mihi, v. me, is unknown to me. Mederi ei ; cupiditates, to cure. 
Ministrare ei, to serve; arma ei, to furnish. 
Moderari animo, gentibus; navim, omnia, to rule. 
Nocere ei, rarely eum, to hurt, Plaut. 

Nubere alicui ; in familiara ; nupta ei & cum eo, to marry, Cic. 
Obrepere ei & eum, to creep upon ; in animos ; ad honores. 
Obstrepere auribus & aures. Obtrectare ei laudibus ejus, to detract from, 
Obumbrat sibi vinea; solem nubes, shades. Pal pari alicui et aliquem. 
Pascisci alicui, cum aliquo ; vitam ab eo, Sail vitam pro laude, Virg. 
Praestolari alicui & aliquem, to wait upon. 
Procumbere terrae; genibus ejus, Ovid, ad genua, Liv. ad pedes, to fall 

To these may be added verbs, which, chiefly among the poets, govern the 
dative, but in prose are usually construed with a preposition ; as, 1. Ccmtendo % 
certo, bello, pugno, concurro, coeo, alicui, for cum aliquo; 2. Distare, dissentire, 
discrepare, dissidere, differre rei alicui, for a re aliqua. We also say, Contend* 



GOVERNMENT OP VERBS. 155 

tint, pugnanl, distant, &c. inter se ; and contendere, pugnare contra ty adversus 



Obs. 4. Many verbs vary both their signification and construction ; as, Timeo, 
metuo, formido, horreo tibi, de te, $ -pro te, I am afraid for you, or for your 
safety ; but timeo, horreo, te v. a te, I fear or dread you as an enemy : So Con- 
sulo prospicio, caveo tibi, I consult or provide for your safety ; but, consulo te, 
I ask your advice; prospicio hoc, I foresee this; Studere aliquid, to desire; 
alicui, to favor; alicui rei, rem, $■ tVre, to apply to a thing: So JEmulor tibi, 
I envy; te, I imitate; Ausculto tibi, I obey or listen to; te, I hear; Cupiotibi, 
I favor; rem, I desire; Fcenero, fy -or tibi, I lend you on interest; abs te, I 
borrow ; Metuisti, ne non tibi istuc foeneraret, should not return with interest, 
vr bring usury, Ter. And thus many other verbs, which will be afterwards 
explained. 

Obs. 5. Verbs signifying Motion or Tendency to a thing 
are construed with the preposition ad ; as, 

JEo, vado, curro, propero, festlno, per go, fugio,tendo, vergo, inclino, &c. ad lo- 
cum rem, v. hominem. Sometimes, however, in the poets they are construed 
with the dative ; as, It clamor ccelo, for ad caelum, Virg. 

3. Verbs governing the Accusative. 

XVIIL A Verb signifying actively governs the 
accusative; as, 

Ama Deum, Love God* Revere parentes, Reverence your parents. 

Obs. 1. Neuter verbs also govern the accusative, when the 
noun after them has a signification similar to their own ; as, 

Ire iter or viam ; Pugnare pugnam or prcelium ; Currere cursum ; Canere can* 
tilenam ; Vivere vitam ; Ludere ludum ; Sequi seclam ; Somniare somnium, &c* 
or when they are taken in a metaphorical sense ; as,Corydon ardebot Alexin, 
scil. propter, i. e. vehementer amabat, Virg. Currimus cequor, scil. per, Id. So 
Comptos arsit adulteri crines, Hor. Saltate Cyclopa; diet hircum; Sulcos et 
vineta crepat mera, Hor. Vox hominem sonat ; Sudare mella, Virg. Si Xerxes 
Hellesponto juncto, et Athone perfosso, maria ambulavisset, terramque navigasset, 
sc. per, Cic. Or when they have a kind of active sense ; as, Clamare aliquem 
nomine, Virg. Caller e jura ; Mcerere mortem; Hor ret iratum mare, Hor. 

Sometimes instead of the accusative, neuter verbs have an ablative ; as, Ire 

itinere ; dolere dolore, vicem ejus ; gaudere gaudio ; mori v. obire morte; vivere 

' vita ; drdet virgine, Horat. Ludere aleam, v. -a ; manare, pluere, rorare, stil* 

tare, sudare, aliquid vel aliquo. Erubescerejura, Virg. origine, Tacit, equo vehi, 

Curt. 

Obs. 2. Several verbs are used both in an active and neuter 
sense ; as, 

Abhorrere famam, to dread infamy, Degenerare animos, to weaken ; patri, 

Liv. a litibus ; ab uxore ducenda, to to degenerate from ; a virtute majo- 

be averse from, Id. a meis moribus rum. 

abhorret, is inconsistent with, Cic. Durare adolescentes labore, to harden ; 

Abolere monumenta viri, to abolish, Res durat ad breve tempus, endures ; 

Virg. illis Cladis Caudinae nondum In aedibus durare nequeo, stay ox re- 

memoria aboleverat, was not effaced main, Plaut. 

from, ihep had not forgotten, Liv. Inclinare culpam in aliquem, to layf 

Adolere penates, to burn, to sacrifice to, Hos ut sequar inclinat animus, in- 

Virg. dines; acies inclinat vel inclinatur, 

./Etas adolevit ; adolevit ad setatem, gives av:ay. 

Plant. Laborare arma, to forge ; morbo, a do* 

Declinare ictum, to avoid : loco ; agraen lore, e renibus, to be HI / de re aliqua, 

aliquo, to remove, to be concerned. 



156 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

Morari iter, to stop; in mbe,tostay; Suppeditare copiam dicendi, to fur* 

Hoc nihil moror, I do not mind. nish; Sumptus illi, vet in sumptibus, 

Properare pecuniam hseredi, Her. in Ter. Suppeditat ei ratio, is afforded ; 

urbem ; ad unam sedem, Ov. Manubiae in fundamenta vix suppe- 

Quadrare acervum, to square, Hor. ali- ditarunt, were sufficient, Liv. 

quid ad normam ; alicui, in aliquem, 

ad multa, to Jit. 

Obs. 3. These accusatives, hoc, id, quid, aliquid, quicquid, nihil, idem, illud, 
lantum, quantum, multa, pauca, &c. are often joined with neuter verbs, having 
the prepositions circa ov propter understood ; as, Id lacrumat, Id succenset, Ter. 

Obs. 4. The accusative is often understood. Turn prora avertit, sc. se, Virg. 
Flumina prcecipitant, sc. Id. Qudcunque intenderat, sc. se, turned or directed him- 
self, Sallust. Qbiit, sc. mortem, Ter. Cum faciam vitula, sc. sacra, Virg. Or 
its place supplied by an infinitive or part of a sentence ; as, Reddes dulce loqui, 
reddes ridere decorum ; for dulcem sermonem, decorum risum, Hor. 

XIX. Recordor, memini, reminiscor, and oblivis- 
cor, govern the accusative or genitive ; as, 

Recordor lectionis or lectionem, I remember the lesson. 

Obliviscor injuries, or injuriam, I forget an injury. 

Obs. 1. These verbs are often construed with the infinitive or some part of 
a sentence; as, Memini videre virginem, Ter. Oblitus est, quidpaulo ante posvr 
isset, Cic. 

Obs. 2. Memini, w y hen it signifies to make mention, is joined with the geni- 
tive, or the ablative, with the preposition de ; as, Memini alicujus, vel de aliquo. 
So recordor, when it signifies to recollect ; as, Velim scire ecquid de te recor' 
dere, Cic 

4. Verbs governing the Ablative. 

XX. Verbs of plenty and scarceness for the 
most part govern the ablative; as, 

Abundat divitiis, He abounds in riches. 

Caret omni culpa, . He has no fault. 

Verbs of plenty are, Abundo, ajfluo, exubero, redundo, sup- 
pedito, scateo, &c.; of want, Careo, egeo, indigeo, vaco, de- 
Jlcior, destituor', &c. 

Obs. 1. Egeo and indigeo frequently govern the genitive ; as, Eget ceris, He 
needs money, Hor. Non tarn artis indigent, quam laboris, Cic. 

Obs. 2. The ablative after these verbs is governed by some preposition un- 
derstood ; and sometimes we find it expressed ; as, Vacat a culpa, he is free from 
fault, Liv. 

XXI. Tit or, abut or, fruor,fungor, potior, vescor, 
govern the ablative ; as, 

Utitur fraude, He uses deceit Abutitur libris, He abuses books. 

To these add, gaudeo, creor, nascor, Jido, vivo, victito, con- 
sto, laboro, for male me habeo, to be ill ; pascor, epulor, ni- 
tor, &c. 

Obs. 1. Potior often governs the genitive ; as, Potiri urbis, 
Sail. And we always say Potiri rerum, to possess the chief 
command, never rebus: imperio "being understood. 



GOVERNMENT OP VERBS. 

Obs. 2. Potior, fungor, vescor, epvlor, and pascor, sometimes have an jLceusa- 
tive ; as, Potiri urbem, Cic. Officio, fungi, Ter. Munera fungi, Tacit. Pascun- 
tur silvas, Virg. And in ancient writers utor, abutor, and fruor ; as, Uti consili- 
um, Plaut. Operant abutitur, Ter. Depasco and depascor always take an ac- 
cusative ; as, Depascitur artus, Virg. 

§ 2. Verbs governing two Cases* 
1. Verbs governing two Datives. 

XXII. Sum taken for affero (to bring} governs 
two datives, the one of a person, and the other of 
a thing ; as, 

Est mihi voluptati, It is, or brings a pleasure to me. 

Two datives are also put after habeo, do, verto, relinqvo; 

tribuo,fore, duco, and some others ; as, 

Ducitur honori tibi, It is reckoned an honor to you. Id vertitur mihi vitio, I am 
blamed for that. So Misit mihi muneri; Dedit mihi dono; Habet sibi laudi; 
Venire, occurrere auxilio alicui, Liv. 

Obs. 1. Instead of the dative, we often use the nominative, or the accusative ; 
as, Est exitium pecori, for exitio ; Dare aliquid alicui donum, or dono : Dare 
Jiliam ei nupiam, or nuptui. When dare, and other active verbs, have two* da- 
tives after them, they likewise govern an accusative either expressed or un- 
derstood ; as, Dare crimini ei, sc. Id. 

Obs. 2. The dative of the person is often to be supplied ; as, Est exemplo, in- 
•dicio, prcesidio, usui, &c. scil. mihi, alicui, hominibus, or some such word. So 
ponere, opponere, pignori, sc. alicui, to pledge. Canere receptui, sc. suis, militi- 
hus, to sound a retreat; Habere euros, quccstui, odio, voluptati, religioni, studio, 
ludibrio, despicatui, &c. sc. sibi. 

Obs. 3. To this rule belong forms of naming ; as, Est mihi nomen Alexandra, 
my name is Alexander; or with the nominative, Est mihi nomen Ale-zander ; or 
more rarely with the genitive, Est mihi nomen Alexandria 

2. Verbs governing the Accusative and the Genitive* 

XXIII. Verbs of accusing, condemning, acquit- 
ting, and admonishing, govern the accusative of a 
person with a genitive of a thing ; as, 

Arguit mefurti, , He accuses me of theft. 

Meipsum inertice condemno, I condemn myself of laziness. 

Ilium homicidii absolvunt, They acquit, him of manslaughter. 

Monet me officii, He admonishes me of my duty. > 

Verbs of accusing are, Accuso, ago, appello, arcesso, in- 
quiro, arguo, defero, insimulo, postulo, alligo, astringo ; of 
condemning-, Damno, condefnno, infamo, noto ; of acquitting, 
Absolvo, libero, pur go ; of admonishing, Moneo, admoneo, 
commonefacio. 

Obs. 1. Verbs of accusing and admonishing, instead of the genitive, tie- 
quently have after them an ablative w r ith the preposition de; as, Monere ali- 
quern officii, or d<e officio ; Accusare aliquemfurti, or de furto. De vi cendemna* 
ti sunt, Cic. 

o 



158 GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 

Obs. 2. Crimen and caput are put either in the genitive or ablative; bnt in 
the ablative usually without a preposition ; as, Damnare, postulare, absolvere 
eum criminis, v. capitis ; and crimine v. capite ; also, Absolvo me peccato, Liv. 
And we always say, Plectere, punire aliquem capite, and not capitis, to punigh 
one capitally, or with death. 

Obs. 3. Many verbs of accusing, &c. are not construed with the ace. of a 
person, and the gen. of a thing, but the contrary ; thus we say, Culpo, repre- 
kendo, taxo, traduco, vitupero, calumnior, criminar, excuso, &e. avaritiam alicvr 
jus, and not aliquem, avariticB. We sometimes also find accuso, incuso, &c. con- 
strued in this manner; as, Accusare inertiam adolescentium, for adolescentes in- 
ertia, Cic. Culpam arguo, Liv. We say, Agere cum aliquo furti, rather than 
aliquem^Xo accuse one of theft, Cic. 

Obs. 4. Verbs of accusing and admonishing sometimes govern two accusa- 
tives, when joined with hoc, illud, istud, id, unum, mutia, &c. as, Moneo, accuse 
te illud. We seldom find, however, Err or em te moneo, but err oris or de err ore ; 
except in old writers, as Plautus. 

XXIV. Verbs of valuing, with the accusative, 
govern such genitives as these, magni^ parvi, nihi- 
it j as, 

JEstimo te magni, I value you much. 

Verbs of valuing are, 2Esti?no, existimo, duco, facio, habeo, 
pendo, puto, taxo. They govern several other genitives ; as, 
ianti, quanti, pluris, majoris, minoris, minimi, plurimi, maxi- 
?ni, nauci, pili, assis, nihili, teruncii, hujus. 

Obs. 1. JEstimo sometimes governs the ablative; as, JEstimo temagno, per- 
magno, parvo, scil. pretio : and also nih.Uo. We likewise say, Pro nihilo habeo, 
puto, duco. 

Obs. 2. JEqui and boni are put in the genitive after facio and consulo ,* as, 
Hoc consido boni, cequi bonique facio, I take this in good part. 

Obs. 3. The genitive after all these verbs is governed by some substantive 
understood ; as, Arguere aliquem furti, scil. re crimine furti ; JEstimo rem mag- 
ni, scil. pretii, or pro re magni pretii ; Consulo bono, i. e. statuo or censeo esse 
factum, or munus boni viri, or animi; Monere aliquem officii, i. e. officii dausa, 
or de re, or negotio officii. 

3. Verbs governing the Accusative and the Dative. 

XXV. j Verbs of comparing, giving, declaring, 
and taking away, govern the accusative and da- 
tive; as, 

Comparo Virgilium Homero, ; I compare Virgil to Homer. 

Suum cuique tribuito, Give every one his own. 

Narras fabulam surdo, You tell a story to a deaf man. 

Eripuit me morti, He rescued me from death. 

Or rather, — Any active verb may govern the accusa- 
tive and the dative, (ivhen together with the object of the 
action, we express the person or thing with relation to which 
it is exerted,) as, 

Legam Uctionem tibi, I will read the lesson to you. Emit librum mihi, He 
bought a book for me. Sic vos non vobis fertis aratra boves, Virg. Paupertas 



GOVERNMENT OF VERBS. 159 

«ppe suadet mala hominibus, advises men to do bad things, Plaut Imperare 
pecuniam, frumenium naves, arrna aliquibus, to order them to furnish J _Caes. 

Obs. 1. Verbs of comparing and taking away, together with some others, are 
often construed with a preposition ; as, Comparare unam rem cum alia ty ad 
aliam, or comparare res inter se: Eripuit me morti, morte, a or exmorte: Mittere 
epistolam alicvA, or ad aliquem : Intendere telum alicui, or in ajiquem : Incidere 
Ctrl, in cbs, or in ara, and so in many others. 

Obs. 2. Several verbs governing the dative and accusative, are construed 
differently; as, 

Circumdare marnia oppido, or oppidum mcenibus, to surround a city with 
walls. 

Intercludere commeatum alicui, or aliquem commeatu, to intercept one's pro- 
visions. 

Donare, prohibere rem alicui, or aliquem re, to give one a present, to hinder 
one from a thing. 

Mactare hostiam Deo, or Deum hostia, to sacrifice. 

Imperlire salutem alicui, or aliquem salute, to salute one. 

Interdixit Gallium Romania, or Romanos Gallia, he debarred the Romans 
from Gaul. 

Induere, exuere vestem sibi, or se veste, to put on, to put off one's clothes. 

Levare dolorem alicui; dolorem alicujus; aliquem dolore, to ease one's dis- 
tress. 

Minari aliquid alicui, or sometimes alicui aliquo, Cic. to threaten one with 
any thing ; Ccesari gladio, Sail. 

Gratulor tibi banc rem, hoc re, in pro, <jr de liac re, I congratulate you on this. 
Mettus Tullo devictos hostes gratulatur, Liv. 

Restituere alicui sanitatem, or aliquem sanitati, to restore to health. 

Aspergere labem alicui, or aliquem labe, to put an affront on one ; aram san- 
guine. ^Litarc Deum sacris, <§r sacra Deo, to sacrifice. 

Kxcusare se alicui fy apud aliquem, de re ; valetudinem ei. 

Exprobare vitium ei v. in eo, to upbraid. 

Occupare pecuniam alicui fy apud aliquem, i. e. pecuniam fcenori locare,' to 
place at interest, Cic. 

Opponere se morti <$- ad mortem. Renunciare id ei, ty ad eum, to tell. 

Obs. 3. Verbs signifying motion or tendency to a thing, 
instead of the dative have an accusative after them, with the 
preposition ad; as, 

Porto, fero, lego, -as, prcecipito, tollo, traho, duco, verto, incito, suscito; also 
hortor, and invito, voco, provoco, animo, stimulo, conformo, lacesso ; thus, Ad lau- 
dem milites hortatur ; Ad praitorem hominem tvaxit, Cic. But after several of 
these verbs, we also find the dative ; as, Inferre Deos Latio, for in Latium, Virg. 
Invitare aliquem hospitio, or in hospitium, Cic. 

Obs. 4. The accusative is sometimes understood; as, Nubere alicui, scil. se; 
Cedere alicui, scil. locum ; Detrahere alicui, scil. laudem ; Ignoscere alicui, scil. 
culpam. And in English the particle to is often omitted ; as, Dedit mihi librum, 
He gave me a book,/or to me. 

4. Verbs governing two Accusatives. 

XXVI. Verbs of asking and teaching govern 
two accusatives, the one of a person, and the other 
of a thing ; as, 

Poscimus te pacem, We beg peace of thee. 

Qocuit me grammaticam, He taught me grammar. 

l» Verbs of asking which govern two accusatives are, Rogo^ 



160 CONSTRUCTION OF PASSIVE VERBS. 

oro, exoro, obsecro, precor, posco, reposco, flagito, &c. Of 
teaching, Doceo, edoceo, dedoceo, emdio. 

Obsu 1. Celo likewise governs two accusatives; as, Celavit 
me hanc rem, He concealed this matter from me ; or other- 
wise, celavit lianc rem mihi, or eelavit me de hac re. 

Obs. 2. Verbs of asking and teaching are often construed with a preposition ' r 
as, Rogare rem ab aliquo; Doeere aliqiiem de re, to inform; but we do not say, 
docere aliquem, de grammatica, but grammaticam, to teach. And we always say 
with a preposition, Veto, exigo a v. abs te ; Percontor, scitor, sciscitor, ex or a te, 
or te without the preposition ; Interrogo, considto te de re ; Ut facias te obsecro ; 
Exorat pacem divum, for divos, Virg. Instruo, instituo,formo, informo, aliquem 
artibus, in the abl. without a prep. Imbuo eum artibus in v. ab artibus. Also 
instruo ad rem, V. in re, ignorantium alicujus. Erudire aliquem artes, de v. in 
re, ad rem. Formate ad studium, mentem studiis, studia ejus. 

Obs. 3. The accusative of the thing is not properly governed by the verb* 
but by quod ad or secundum understood. 

5. Verbs governing the Accusative and the Ablative. 

XXVII. Verbs of loading, binding, clothing, 
depriving, and some others, govern the accusative 
and the ablative ; as, 

Onerut naves auro, He loads the ships with gold. 

Verbs of loading are, One'ro, cumulo, premo, opprimo, obruo. Of unloading, 
levo, exonero, &c. Of binding, astringo, ligo, alltgo, devincio, impedio, irretio* 
illaqueo, &c. Of loosing, solvo, ex solvo, libero, laxo, expedio, &c. Of depriving, 
privo, nudo, orbo. spolio, fraudo, emungo. Of clothing, vestio, amicio, induOj 
cingo, tego, velo, corcno, & calceo. Of unclothing, exuo, discingo, &c. 

Obs. 1. The preposition, by which the ablative is governed after these verbs, 
is sometimes expressed ; as, Solvere aliquem ex catenis, Cic. Sometimes the ab- 
lative is to be supplied ; as, Complet naves, sc. viris, mans the ships, Virg. 

Obs. 2. Several of these verbs likewise govern the genitive ; as, Adolescent 
tern su/2 temeritatis implet, Liv. And also vary their construction ; as, Induit> 
exuit se vestibus x or vestes sibi. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF PASSIVE VERBS. 

* XXVIII. When a verb in the active voice gov- 
erns two cases, in the passive it retains the latter 
case; as, 

' Accusor furti, I am accused of theft. 

Virgilius comparatur Homero, Virgil is compared to Homer. 

Doceor grammaticam, I am taught grammar. 

Navis oneratur auro, - The ship is loaded with gold. 

So Scio homines accusatum iri furti ;— — Eos ereptum iri morti, morte, a\el 
ex morte ; — —pueros doctum iri grammaticam ; — > — rem celatum iri mihi vel me ,* 
me celatum iri de re, &c. 

Sometimes the active has three cases, and then the passive has the two last 
cases ; as, Habetur ludibrio Us. 

Obs. 1. Passive verbs are commonly construed with the 
ablative and the preposition a / as. 



CONSTRUCTION Of* IMPERSONAL VERBS, 161 

*Pu laudaris a me, which is equivalent to Ego laudo te. Virtus diligitur a 
nobis ; Nos diligimus virtutem. Gaudeo meum factum probari a te, or te pro* 
bare meum factum: And so almost all active verbs. Neuter and deponent verba 
also admit this preposition ; as, Mare a sole coUucet, Cic. Phalaris non a pau* 
cis interiU, Id. So Coder e ab hoste ; Cessare a preliis ; Mori ab ense ; Pati fu~ 
rari, aliquid ab aliquo, &c. Also, Venire ab hostibus, to be sold ; Vopulare ab 
aliquo, Exulare ab urbe. Thus likewise many active verbs; as, Sumere, pe- 
tere, tottere, pellere, expectare, emere, &c. ab aliquo. 

The prep, is sometimes understood after passive verbs ; as, Deseror conjuge* 
Ovid. Desertus suis, sc. a, Tacit. Tabula distinguitur, unda qui navigat, sc. ab 
unda, is kept from the water by a plank, Juvenal. 

The preposition PER is also used in the same sense with A ; as, Per me de- 
fensa est respublica, or a me ; Per me restitutus ; Per me v. a me factum est, Cic. 
But PER commonly marks the instrument, and A the principal efficient 
cause ; as, Res agitur per creditores, a rege, sc. a rege vel a legato ejus, Cic 
Fam. i. 1. 

Obs. 2. Passive verbs sometimes govern the dative, espe- 
cially among the poets ,* as, 

Neque cernilur ulli, for ab ullo, Virg. Vix audior ulli, Ovid. Scriberis Vario, 
for a Vario, Hor. Honesta bonis viris queer untur, for a viris, Cic. VIDEOR, to 
seem, always governs the dative ; as, Videris mihi, You seem to me : but we 
commonly say, Videris a me, You are seen by me, although not always ; as, 
Nulla tuarum audita mihi, neque visa sororum, for a me, Virg. 

Obs. 3. Jnduor, amicior, cingor, accingor, also exuor, and discingor, are often 
construed with the accusative, particularly among the poets, though we do not 
find them governing two accusatives in the active voice ; as, Induitur vestem 
or veste. 

Obs. 4. Neuter verbs are for the most part only used impersonally in the 
passive voice ; unless when they are joined with a noun of a similar significa- 
tion to their own ; as, Pugnapvgnata est, Cic. Bellum militabitur, Horat. Pas- 
sive impersonal verbs are most commonly applied either to a multitude, or to an 
individual taken indefinitely ; as, Statur, jletur, curritur, vivitur, venitur, &c. a 
nobis, ab illis, &c. We are standing, weeping, &c. Bene potest vivi a me vel 
ab aliquo: I or any person may live well. Provisum est nobis optime a Deo; 
Reclamatum est ab omnibus, all cried out against it, Cic. 

They also govern the same cases as when used personally ; as, Ut majoribus 
natu assurgatur, ut supplicam misereatur, Cic. Except the accusative, for in 
these phrases, Itur Athenas, pugnatum est biduum dormitur totam noctem, the 
accusative is not governed by the verb, but by the prepositions ad and per un- 
derstood. We find, however, Tola mihi dormitur hyems; Noctes vigiiantur 
amarcs ; Oceanus raris ab orbe nostro navibus auditor. Tacit 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF IMPERSONAL VERBS. 

XXIX. An. Impersonal Verb governs the da- 
tive; as, 

Expedit reipvMicce, It is profitable for the state. 

Verbs which, in the active voice, govern only the dative, 
are used impersonally in the passive, and likewise govern the 
dative ; as, 

Favetur mihi, I am favored, and not Egofaveor. So Nocetur mihi, imperatur 
mihi, &c. We find, however, Hcec ego procurare imperor ; Ego cur invideor, 
for imperatur, invidetiir mihi, Hor. 

Obs. 1. These verbs, Potest, c&pit, incipit, desinit, debet, 
02 



162 CONSTRUCTION OF IMPERSONAL VERBS, 

and solet, are used impersonally, when joined with impersonal 

verbs ; as, 

Non potest credi tibi, You cannot be believed ; Mihi non potest noceri, I can- 
not be hurt; Negat jucunde posse vivi sine virtute, Cic. Per virtutem potest iri 
ad astra. Aliorum laudi § glorice invideri solet. The praise and glory of others 
use to be envied, Id. Neque a fortissimis infirmissimo generi resisti posse, 
Sallust. 

Obs. 1. Various verbs are used both personally and impersonally ; as, Venit 
in mentem mihi hcec res, vel de hac re, vel hujus rei, scil. memoria, This thing 
came into my mind. Est curce mihi hcec res, vel de hac re. Doleo vel dolet mihi 
id factum esse. 

Obs. 3. The neuter pronoun it is always joined with impersonal verbs in 
English; as, It rains, it shines, &c. And in the Latin an infinitive is commonly 
subjoined to impersonal verbs, or the subjunctive with ut, forming a part of a 
sentence which may be supposed to supply the place of a nominative; as, No- 
bis non licet peccare, the same with peccatum; Omnibus bonis expedit rempubli- 
cam esse satvam, i. e. salus reipublicoz expedit omnibus bonis, Cic. Accidit, 
evenit, contigit ut ibi essemus. These nominatives hoc, illud, id, idem, quod, &c 
are sometimes joined to impersonal verbs ; as, idem mihi licet, Cic. Eadem U- 
cent t Catull. 

Obs. 4. The dative is often understood ; as, Faciat quod libet, sc. sibi, Ter. 
Stat casus renovare, omnes, sc. mihi, I am resolved, Virg. 

Exc. I. REFERT and INTEREST require the geni- 

tive ; as, 

E£fert patris, It concerns my father. Interest omnium, It is the interest of all. 

IT But mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra, are put in the accusa- 
tive plural neuter ; as, 

Non mea refert, It does not concern me. 

Obs. 1. Some think mea, tua, sua, &c. to be in the ablat. 
sing. fera« We say either cujus interest, and quorum interest ; 
or cuja interest, from cujus, -a, -urn. 

Obs. 2. Refert and interest are often joined with these nominatives, id, hoc, 
illud, quid, quod, nihil, &c. also with common nouns ; and with these genitives, 
Tanti, quanti, magni, permagni, parvi, pluris ; as, Hoc parvi refert ; Illud mea 
magni interest, Cic. Usque adeo magni refert studium, Lucret. Incessus iTk 
gravida refert, Plin. 

They are frequently construed with these adverbs, Tantum, quantum, mulr 
turn, plus, plurimum, infinitum, parum, maxime, vehementer, minime, &c. as, Fa- 
c\am, quod maxime reipublicm interesse judicabo, Cic. Sometimes instead of the 
genit. they take the accusative with the prep, ad; as, Quid id adme,autad 
meam rem refert, Persce quid rerum gerant ? Of what importance is it ? &c 
Plaut. Magni ad honorem nostrum interest, Cic. rarely the dative; as, Die 
quid referat intra natures fines viventi, &c. Hor. Sometimes they are placed ab- 
solutely ; as, Magnopere interest opprimi Dolabellam, it is of great importance, 
Cic. Permultum interest, qualis primus aditus sit, Id. Adeone estfundata levi- 
ter fides, ut ubi sim, quam qui sim, magis referat, Liv. Plurimum enim intererit, 
quibus artibus, aut quibus hunc tu moribus instituas, Juv. 

Obs. 3. The genitive after refert and interest is governed by some substan- 
tive understood, with which the possessives mea, tua, sua, &c. likewise agree ; 
as, Interest Ciceronis, i. e. est inter negotia Ciceronis ; Refert patris, i. e. refert 
se, hcec res ad negotia patris; So interest mea, est inter negotia mea. 

Exc. II. These five, MISERET, PCENITET, PUDET f 
TJEDET, and PIGET, govern the accusative of a person 
with the genitive of a thing ; as, 



CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE* 163 

Miseret me tui, I pity you. Tcedet me vitce, I am weary of life. 

FcenUet me peccali, I repent of my Pudet me culpa, I am ashamed of my 
ein. - fault. 

Obs. 1. The genitive here is properly governed either by negotium under- 
stood, or by some other substantive of a signification similar to that of the verb 
with which it is joined ; as, Miseret me tui, that is, negotium or miseraiio. tui 
miseret me. 

Obs. 2. An infinitive or some part of a sentence may supply the place of the 
genitive ; as, Poenitet me peccasse, or quod peccaverim. The accusative is fre- 
quently understood ; as, Scelerum si bene poenitet, scil. nos, Horat. 

Obs. 3. Miseret, poenitet, &c. are sometimes used personally, especially when 
joined with these nominatives, hoc, id, quod, &c. as, Ipse sui miseret, Lucr»; 
Nonne hcec te pudent, Ter. Nihil, quod pcenitere possit, facias, for cujus te poeni- 
terepossit, Cic. 

We sometimes find miseret joined with two accusatives ; as, Menedemi vioem 
miseret me, scil. secundum or quod ad, Ter. 

Obs. 4. The preterites of miseret, pudet, tcedet, and piget, when used in th© 
passive form, govern the same cases with the active ; as, Miseritum est me tib- 
arum fortunarum, Ter. We likewise find miserescit and miseretur used imper- 
sonally ; as, Miserescit me tui, Ter. ; Miser eatur tefratrum ; Neque me tui, rteqw 
Uiorum liberorum misereri potest, Cic. 

♦ 

Exc. III. DECET, DELECT AT, JUVAT, and OPOB, 

TET, govern the accusative of a person with the infini- 
tive ; as, 

Delectat me studere, It delights me to study. 

Non decet te rixari, It does not become you to scold. 

Obs. 1. These words are sometimes used personally; as, Parvum parva de- 
cent, Hor. Est aliquid, quod non oporteat, etiamsi liceat, Cic. Hcec facta ah illo 
oportebant, Ter. 

Obs. 2. Decet is sometimes construed with the dative ; as, Ita nobis decet, 
Ter. 

Obs. 3. Oportet is elegantly joined with the subjunctive 

mode, ut being understood ; as, 

Sibi quisque consulat oportet, Cic. Or with the perfect participle, esse or fuisss 
being understood; as, Communicatum oportuit; mansum oportuit; Adolescenti 
morem gestum oportuit, The young man should have been humored, Ter. 

Obs. 4. Fallit, fugit, prceterit, Met, when used impersonally, also govern the 
accusative with the infinitive; as, In lege nulla esse ejusmodi caput, non te fallit; 
De Dionysia fugit me ad te antea scribere, Cic. 

NOTE. Attinet, pertinet, & spectat, are construed with ad ; Ad rempublicam 
pertinet, me conservari, Cic. And so personally, Itte ad me attinet, belongs, Ter. 
Kes ad arma spectat, looks, points, Cic. 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE INFINITIVE* 

XXX. One verb governs another in the infini- 
tive; as, 

Cupio discere, I desire to learn. 

Obs. 1. The infinitive is often governed by adjectives; as, 
Horatius est digitus legi, Quinctil. And sometimes depends 



164 CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES, &C» 

on a substantive ; as, Tempus equum, fumantia solvere colla, 
Virg. 

Obs. 2. The word governing the infinitive is sometimes understood ; as Me 
ne incepto desistere victam, scil. decet, or par est, Virg. Videre est, one may see. 
Dicere non est, scil. copia, or facultas, Horat. And sometimes the infinitive 
itself is to be supplied \ as, Socratemfidibus decuit % scil. canere, Cic. So, Discere, 
scire fidibus. 

Obs. 3. The infinitive was not improperly called by the ancients, Nomen 
verbi, the name or noun of the verb, because it is both joined with an adjective 
like a substantive ; as, Telle suum cuique est. Every one has a will of his own ; 
and likewise supplies the place of a noun, not only in the nominative, but also 
in all the oblique cases; as, 1. In the nominative, Latrocinari, fraudare, turps 
est, Cic. Didicisse fideliter artes, emollit mores, Ovid. 2. In the genitive, Peri- 
tus cantare, for cantandi or cantics, Virg. 3. In the dative, Paratus servire, fot 
servituti, Sail. 4. In the accusative, Da mihi f alter e, for artem fallendi, Horat. 
Quod faciam superest, prater amare, nihil, Ovid. 5. In the vocative, O vivere 
nostrum, ut non sentientibus effiuis! for vita nostra. 6. In the ablative, Dignus 
amari, for amore, or qui ametur, Virg. 

Obs. 4. Instead of the infinitive, a different construction is often used after 
verbs of doubting, willing, ordering, fearing, hoping ; in short, after ariy verb 
which has a relation to futurity; as, Dubiiat ita facere, or more frequently, an, 
num, or utrum ita faclurus sit ; Dubitavit an faceret necne ; Non dubito quin 
fecerit. Vis me facere, or ut faciam. Meluit tangi, or ne tangatur. Spero te 
venturum esse, or fore ut venias. Nunquarft putam fore ut ad te supplex venirem, 
Cic. Existimabant futurum fuisse ut oppidum amitteretur, Caes. 

Obs. 5. To, which in English is the sign of the infinitive, is omitted after bia\ 
dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and some others ; as, I bid him do it : and in 
Latin may often be rendered otherwise than by the infinitive ; as, I am sent to 
complain, Mittor, questum, or ut querar, &c. Ready to hear, Promplus ad audi- 
endum; Time to read, Tempus legendi: Fit to swim, Aptus natando; Easy to 
say, Facile dictu ; I am to write, Scripturus sum ; A house to let, or more prop- 
erly, to be let, Domus locanda ; He was left to guard the oity, Relictus est ut 
tueretur urbem. 

To in English is often taken absolutely; as, To confess the truth; To proceed; 
To conclude ; that is, That I may confess the truths &c 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS, AND 
SUPINES. 

XXXI. Participles, Gerunds, and Supines, gov- 
ern the case of their own verbs ; as, 

Amans virtulem, Loving virtue. Carens fraude, Wanting guile. 

Obs. 1. Passive Participles often govern the dative, par- 
ticularly when they are used as adjectives ; as, 

Suspectus mihi, suspected by me ; Suspectiores regibus, "Sail. Invisus mihi f 
hated by me, or hateful to me ; Indies invisior, Suet. Occulta, et maribus non 
invisa solum, sed etiam inaudiia sacra, unseen, Cic. 

EXOSUS, P EROS US, and often also, PERTjESUS, govern the accusa- 
tive ; as, Tadas exosa jugales, Ovid. Plebs considum nomen haud secus quara 
regumperosa erat, Liv. Pert/Bsus ignaviam suam; semet ipse, displeased with, 
Suet, vitam, weary of, Justin, levitatis, Cic. 

Verbals in BUNDUS govern the cases of their own verbs ; as, (xratulabundus 
patriot, Just. Vitabundus castra hostium, Liv. So sometimes also nouns; as, 
Justitia est obtemperatio scriptis legibus, Cic. Insidim consult, Sail. Domum 
reditionis spe subtata, Caes. Spectatio ludos, Plaut. 



CONSTRUCTION OF GERUNDS. 165 

Obs. 2. These verbs, do, reddo, volo, euro, facio, habeo, comperio, with the 
perfect participle, form a periphrasis similar to what we use in English ; as, 
Compertum habeo, for comperi, I have found, Sail. Effectum dabo, for efficiam; 
Inventum tibi curabo, et adductum tuum Pamphilum, i. e. inveniam et adducam, 
Ter. Sometimes the gerund is used with ad; as, Tradere ei gentes diripien* 
das, or ad diripiendum, Cic. Rogo, accipio, do aliquid uleridum ; or ad uten* 
dura ; Misit mihi librum legendum, or ad legendum, &c. 

Obs. 3. These verbs, euro, habeo, mando, loco, conduco, do, tribuo, mitto, &c. 
are elegantly construed with the participle in dus, instead of the infinitive; as, 
Funus faciendum curavi, for fieri, or ut fieret ,• Columnas, cedificandas locavit % 
Cic. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF GERUNDS. 

XXXII. Gerunds are construed like substantive 
nouns; as, 

Studendum est mihi, I must study. 

Tempus studendi, Time of study. 

Aptus studendo, Fit for studying. 

Scio studendum esse mihi, I know that I must study. 

But more particularly : 

I. The Gerund in DUM with the verb est governs the 

dative ; as, 

Legendum est mihi, I must read. Moriendum est omnibus, All must die. 

So Scio, legendum est mihi ; moriendum esse omnibus, &c. 

Obs. 1. This gerund always imports obligation or necessity, and may be re- 
solved into oportet, necesseest, or the like, and the infinitive or the subjunctive, 
with the conjunction ut; as, Omnibus est moriendum, or Omnibus necesse esl 
mori, or ut moriantur ; or Necesse est ut omnes moriantur. Consulendum est tibi 
a me, I must consult for your good ; for Oportet ut consulam tibi, Cic. 

Obs. 2. The dative is often understood ; as, Orandum est, ut sit mens sana 
in corpore sano, sc. tibi, Juv. Hie vincendum, aut moriendum, milites, est, sc 
nobis, Liv. Deliberandum est diu, quod statuendum est semel^ sc. tibi vel alien*, 
P. Syr. 

II. The gerund in DI is governed by substantives or adjec- 
tives; as, 

Tempus legendi, Time of reading. Cupidus discendi, Desirous of learning. 
Obs. This gerund is sometimes construed with the genitive plural ; as, Fa* 
cultas agrorum condonandi, for agros, Cic. Copia spectandi comcediarum, for 
comcedias, Ter. But chiefly with pronouns; as, In castra venerunt sui purgan* 
di causa, Caes. Vestri adhortandi causa, Liv. Ejus videndi cupidus, sc. fcemi* 
nee, Ter. The gerund here is supposed to govern the genitive like a suDstan* 
tive noun. 

III. The gerund in DO of the dative case is governed by 
adjectives signifying usefulness or fitness ; as, 

Charta utilis scribendo, Paper useful for writing. 

Obs. 1. Sometimes the adjective is understood ; as, Non est solvendo, scil. 
par, or habilis, He is not able to pay. Is finis censendof actus est, Liv. 

Obs. 2. This gerund is sometimes governed also by verbs : as, Adesse scri* 
bendo, Cic. Aptat habendo ensem, for wearing, Virg. 

IV. The gerund in DUM of the accusative case is gov- 
erned by the preposition ad or inter ; as, 



166 CONSTRUCTION OF GERUNDS. 

Promptus ad audiendum, Ready to hear. 

Attentus inter docendum, Attentive in time of teaching. 

Obs. This gerund is also governed by some other prepositions ; as, Ante do- 
inandum, Virg. Ob absolvendum, Cic. Circa movendum, Quinctil. Or it de- 
jjends on some verb going before, and then with the verb esse governs the da- 
tive case ; as, Scio moriendum esse omnibus, I know that all must die. Esse is 
often understood. 

V. The gerund in DO of the ablative case, is governed by 
the prepositions a, ab, de, e, ex, or in; as, 

Poena a peccando absterrel. Punishment frightens from sinning. 

* Or without a preposition, as the ablative of manner or 
cause; as, 

Memoria excolendo augetur, The memory is improved by exercising it 

Defessus sum ambulando, I am weaned with w r alking. 

Obs. The gerund, in its nature, very much resembles the infinitive. Hence 
the one is frequently put for the other; as, Est tempus legendi, or legere: only 
the gerund is never joined with an adjective ; and is sometimes taken in a pas* 
eive sense ; as, Cum, Tisidwn vocaretur ad imperandum, i. e. ut ipsi imperatur, 
to receive orders, Sail. Nuncades ad imperandum, vel ad parendum potius ; 
Sic enim antiqui loquebantur, Cic. i. e. ut tibi imperetur. Urit videndo, i. e. dum 
mdetur, Virg. 

The gerund, in English, becomes a substantive by prefixing the article to it, 
and then it is always to be construed with the preposition of; as, He is em- 
ployed in writing letters; or, in tlx& uniting of letters; but it is improper to say, 
m the writing letters, or in writing of letters. . 

Gerunds turned into participles in dus. 

XXXVI. Gerunds governing the accusative are 
elegantly turned into participles in das, which, 
like adjectives, agree with their substantives in 
gender, number, and case ; as, 

By the Gerund. ^ By the Participle or Geruntive* 

PetundUm est mihi pacem, ") 2H f Pax est petenda mihi. 

Tempus peiendi, ' . I o « j Tempus petendce pads. 
Ad petendum pacem, [ f c j Ad petendam pacem. 

A petendo pacem, J ®t§ I A petenda pace. 

Obs. 1. In changing gerunds into participles in dus, the 
participle and the substantive are always to be put in the 
same case in which the gerund was ; as, 

Genitive. Inita sunt consilia urbis delendm, civium trucidandorum, nominis 
Romani extinguendi, Cic. 

Dat. Perpetiendo labori idoneus, Colum. Capessenda? reipublicee habilis, Tac 
Areafirma templis acporticibus sustinendis, Liv. Oneri ferendo est, sc. aptus v. 
habiles, Ovid. Natus miser Us ferendis, Ter. Literis dandis vigilare, Cic Lo- 
cum oppido condendo capere, Liv. 

Ace. and Abl. Ad defendendam Romam ab oppugnanda Capua duces Roma- 
nos abstrahere, Liv. Orationem JLatinam legendis nostris efficies pleniorem, Cic. 

Obs. 2. The gerunds of verbs which do not govern the accusative, are neve* 
changed into the participle, except those of medeor,, utor, abutor, fruor, fungor, 
and potior ; as, Spes potiundi urbe, or potiundi urbis ; but we always say, Cugi* 
dus subveniendi tibi, and never tui. 



CONSTRUCTION OF SUPINES. 167 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF SUPINES. 
1. The Supine in urn. 

XXXVII. The supine in um is put after a verb 
of motion ; as, 

Abiit deambulatum> He hath gone to walk. 

So Ducere cohortes prcedatum, Liv. Nunc venis irrisum dominum ; Quod in 
rem tuam optimum facta arbitror, te id admonitum venio, Plaut. 

Obs. 1. The supine in um is elegantly joined with the verb eo, to express the 
signification of any verb more strongly ; as, It se perditum, the same with id 
agit, or operam dat, ut se perdat, He is bent on his own destruction, Ter. This 
supine* with iri taken impersonally, supplies the place of the infinitive passive; 
as, An credebas illam sine tua opera iri deductum domum ? which may be thus re- 
solved, An credebas iri (a te vet ab aliquo)' deductum (i. e. ad deducendum) 
illam domum, Ter. 

Obs. 2. The supine in um is put after other verbs besides verbs of motion; as, 
Dedit filiam nuptum ; Cantatum provocemus, Ter. Revocatus defensum patri- 
am ; JDivisit copias hiematum, Nep. 

Obs. 3. The meaning of this supine may be expressed by several other parts 
of the verb ; as, Venit oratum opem ; or 1. Venit opem orandi causa, or opis 
oranda. 2. Venit ad orandum opem, or ad orandam opem. 3. Venit opi orandai. 
4. Venit opem oraturus. 5. Venit qui, or ut opem oret. 6. Venit opem orare. 
But the third and the last of these are seldom used. 

2. The Supine in u. 

XXXVIIL The supine in u is put after an ad- 
jective noun ; as, 

Facile dictu, Easy to tell, or to be told. 

So Nihil dictu fcedum, visuque li&c limina tangat ; intra qua? puer est, Juv. 
'Difficilis res est inventu versus amicus; Fas v. nefas est dictu; Opus est scitvq 
Cic. 

Obs. 1. The supine in u, being used in a passive sense, hardly ever governs 
any case. If is sometimes, especially in old writers, put after verbs of motion ; 
as, Nunc absonatu redeo, from getting provisions, Plaut Primus cubitu surgai 
(villicus) from bed, postremus cubitum eat, Cato. 

Obs. 2. This supine may be rendered by the infinitive or gerund with the 
preposition ad ; as, Difficile cognitu } cognosci, or ad cognoscendum ; Res f otitis 
ad credendum, Cic. 

Obs. 3. The supines being nothing else but verbal nouns of the fourth de- 
clension, used only in trie accusative and ablative singular, are governed in 
these cases by prepositions understood ; the supine in um by the preposition ad, 
and the supine in u by the preposition in. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF INDECLINABLE WORDS. 
I. The Construction of Adverbs. 

XXXIX. Adverbs are joined to verbs, and par- 
ticiples to adjectives, and to other adverbs ; as, 

Bene scribit, He writes well. 

Servius egregie Jtdelis f A slave remarkably faithful. 

Fortiter pugnans, Fighting bravely. 

Satis bene t Well enough. 



168 CONSTRUCTION OP INDECLINABLE VORDS. 

Obs. 1. Adverbs are sometimes likewise joined to substan- 
tives; as, 

Homerus plane orator ; plane nosier ', verh Metellus, Cic. So, Hodie mane ; 
eras mane, heri mane ; hodie vesperi, &c. tarn mane, tarn vespere. 

Obs. 2. The adverb for the most part in Latin, and always in English, is 
placed near to the word which it modifies or affects. 

Obs. 3. Two negatives, both in Latin and English, are 
equivalent to an affirmative ; as, 

Nee non senserunt, Nor did they not perceive^ i. e. Et senserant, And they did 
perceive ; Non poteram non exanimari metu, Cic. Examples, however, of the 
contrary, of this sometimes occur in good authors, both English and Latin. 
Thus two or three negative particles are placed before the subjunctive mode 
to express a stronger negation. Neque tu haud dicas tibi non pradictum, And 
do not say that you were not forewarned, Ter. 

But what chiefly deserves attention in Adverbs, is the degree of comparison 
and the mode with which they are joined. 1. Apprime, admudum, vehementer, 
maxime perquam, valde, oppidb, &c. and per in composition, are usually joined 
to the positive ; as, Utrique nostrum gratum admodum feceris, You will 9o what 
is very agreeable to both of us, Cic. Perquam puerile, very childish ; oppidb 
pauci, very few; perfacile est, &c. In like manner, Parum, multum, nimium, 
tantum, quantum, aliquantum; as, In rebus apertissimus nimium longi sumus ; 
parum Jirmus multum bonus, Cic. Adverbs in um are sometimes also joined to 
comparatives ; as, Forma viri aliquantum amplior liumana, Liv. 

QUAM is joined to the positive or superlative in different senses ; as, Quam 
difficile est ! How difficult it is ! Quam crudelis, or Ut crudelis est! How cruel 
he is! Flens quam familiar iter, very familiarly, Ter. So quam severe, very se- 
verely, Cic. Quam late, very widely, Cass. Turn mulia, quam, &c. as many 
things as, &c. Quam maximas potest copias armat, as great as possible, Sail 
Quam maximas graiias agit quam primum, quam s&pissime, Cic. Quam quisque 
pessime fecit, tarn maxime tutus est, SALL. 

FACILE, for haud dubic, undoubtedly, clearly, is joined to the superlatives 
or words of a similar meaning ; as, Facile doctissimus, facile princeps, v. pra* 
cipuus. LONGE, to comparatives or superlatives, rarely to the positive ; as, 
Longe eloquentissimus Plato, Cic. Pedibus Icmgemelior Lycus. Virg. 

2. CUM, when, is construed with the indicative or subjunctive, oftener with 
the latter; DUM, whilst, or how long, with the indicative; as, Dum hcec agun- 
tur; JEgroto, dum anima est, spes esse dicitur, Cic. Donee erisfelix, rnultos nu- 
merates amicos, Ovid. DUM and DONEC, for usquedum, until, sometimes with 
tho indicative, and sometimes with the subjunctive ; as, Operior, dum ista Cog* 
nosco, Cic. Haud desinam, donee perfecero, Ter. So QUOAD, for quamdiu, 
quantum, quatenus, as long, as much, as far as; thus, Quoad Catilina fuit in 
urbe ; Quoad tibi a>quum videbitur ; quoad possem fy liceret ; quoad progrcdi 

fotuerit amentia,\C\c. But QUOAD, until, oftener with the subjunctive ; as, 
liessalonicm esse statueram, quoad aliquid ad me scriberes, Cic. but not always ; 
Non faciam finem roga.ndi, quoad nunciatum eritte fecisse, Cic. The pronoun 
ejus, with facere or fieri, is elegantly added to quoad; as, Quoad ejus facere po- 
teris; Quoad ejus fieri, possit, Cic. Ejus is thought to be here governed by 
aliquid, or some such word understood. Quoad corpus, quoad animam, for se- 
cundum, or quoad attinet ad corpus vel animam, as to the body or soul, is es- 
teemed by the best grammarians not to be good Latin. 

3. POSTQUAM or POSTEAQUAM, after, is usually joined with the indie 
ANTEQUAM, PRIUSQUAM, before: SIMUL, SIMULAC, SIMULAT- 
QUE, SIMULUT, as soon as ; UBI, when, sometimes with the Ind. and some- 
times with the Subj. ; as, Antequarn dico or dicam, Cic. Simulac persensit, Virg. 
Simul ut videro Curionem, Cic» Hcec ubi dicta dedit, Liv» Ubi semel quis pe* 
jeraverit, ei credi postea non oportet, Cic. So NiE, truly ; as, N& ego homo sum 
infelix, Ter. Nee tu, si idfecisses, melius fama consuluisses, Cic. But NE, not, 
with the imperative, or more elegantly with the subjunctive; as, Ne jura, 



GOVERNMENT OF ADVERBS. 169 

Fiaut. Ne post con/eras culpam in me, Ter. Ne lot annorum felicitatem in 
unius horcB dederis discrimen, Liv. 

4. QUASI, CEU,TANQUAM,PERINDE, when they denote resemblance, 
are joined with the indicative ; Fait olim, quasi ego sum, senex, Plaut. Adversi 
rupto ceu quondam turbine venti conjiigunt, Virg. Hcec omnia perinde sunt, ut 
aguntur. But when used ironically, they have the subjunctive; as, Quasi de 
verbo, non de re laborelur, Cic. 

5. UTINAM, 6 SI, UT for utinam, I wish, take the subjunctive ; as, Utinam 
ea res ei voluptati sit, Cic. O mihi prceteritos referat si Jupiter annos, Virg. Ut 
ittum dii deceque perdant, Ter. 

6. UT, when, or after, takes the indicative ; as, Ut discessit, venit, &c. IT Also 
for quam, or quomodo, how ! as, Ut valet ! Ut falsus animi est ! Ut scepe summa 
ingeniain occulto latent! Plaut. II Or when it simply denotes resemblance; 
as, Ut tute es, ita omnes censes esse, Plaut. IT In this sense it sometimes has the 
subjunctive; as, Ut sementemfeceris, ita metes, Cic. 

7. QUIN, for CUR NON, takes the indie. ; as, Quin continelis vocem indicem 
stultitue vestrce ? Cic. 1T For IMO, nay or but, the indie, or imperat. as, Quin 
est paratum, argentum ; quin in hoc audi, Ter. 1T For UT NON, QUI, QU^E, 
QUOD NON, or QUO MINUS, the subjunctive ; as, Nulla tamfacilis res, quin 
difficilis fiet quum invitus facias, Ter. Nemo est, quin malet ; Facer e non pos- 
sum, quin ad te mittam, I cannot help sending; Nihil abest, quin sim miserri- 
mus, Cic. 

THE GOVERNMENT OF ADVERBS. 

XL. Some Adverbs of time, place, and quanti- 
ty, govern the genitive ; as, 

Pridie ejus diei, The day before that day. 

Ubique gentium, Everywhere. 

Satis est verborum, There is enough of words. 

1. Adverbs of time governing the genit. are, Interea, postea, inde, tunc; as, 
Interea loci, in the mean time ; postea loci, afterwards ; inde loci, then ; tunc 
temporis, at that time. 2. Of place, Ubi and quo with their compounds, ubique, 
ubicunque, ubivis, ubiubi, &c. Also Eo, hue, uccine, unde, usquam, nusquam, 
longe, ibidem ; as, Ubi, quo, quovis, &c. also, usquam, nusquam, unde terrarum^ 
vel gentium ; longe gentium ; ibidem loci, eo audacice, vecordicc miseriarum, &C. 
to that pitch of boldness, madness, misery, &c. 3. Of quantity, Abunde, affa- 
tim, largiter, nimis, satis, parum, minime ; as, Abunde glories affatim divitiarum, 
largiter auri satis eloquentics, sapientics, parum est illi, vel hdbet. He has enough 
of glory, riches, &c. Minime gentium, by no means. 

Some add ergo and instar ; as, Ergo viriutis, for the sake of virtue, Cic. /ra- 
ster montis, like a mountain, Virg. But these are properly nouns. 

Obs. 1. These adverbs are thought to govern the genitive, because they im- 
ply, in themselves, the force of a substantive ; as, Potentim gloriceque abunde 
adeptus, the same with abundantiam glories ; or res, locus, or negolium, and a 
preposition, may be understood ; as, Interea loci, i. e. inter ea negotia loci ; Ubi 
terrarum, for in quo loco terrarum. 

Obs. 2. We usually say, pridie, postridie ejus diei, seldom diem ; but pridie, 
postridie Kalendas, Nonas, Idus, tudos Apollinares, natalem ejus, absolutionem 
ejus, &c. rarely Kalendarum, &c. 

Obs. 3. En and ecce are construed either with the nomina- 
tive or accusative ; as, 

En hostis, or hostem ; Ecce miserum hominem, Cic. Sometimes a dative is 
added ; as, Ecce tibi Strato, Ter. Ecce duas (scil. aras) tibi, Daphni, Virg. In 
like manner is construed hem put for ecce ; as, Hem tibi Davum, Ter. But in 
all these examples some verb must be understood. 

P 



170 CONSTRUCTION OP PREPOSITIONS. 

XLI. Some derivative adverbs govern the case 
of their primitives ; as, 

Omnium optime loquitur, He speaks the best of all. 

Convenienter natures, Agreeably to nature. 

Venit obviam ei, He came to meet him. 

Proxime castris or castra, Next the camp. 

II. The Construction of Prepositions. 

H 1. The Prepositions a d, apud, ante, &c. govern the ac- 
cusative; as, 

AD astra, to the stars; religari ad asse- Ante diem, focum, &c. before. 

rem, to be bound to a plank ; ad diem Ad versus, v. -urn ; Contra hostes, 

veniam, solvam, &c. at or on; ad a^amsZ ,* ad versus infimos justitiaest 

portam, ostium, fores, at, before; ad servanda, toward; adversum hunc 

urbem, Tiberim, near, at ; ad templa loqui, to, Ter. Lerina adversum An- 

supplicatio, in ; ad summum, at tipolim, over against, Plin. 

most, or to the top ; ad summam, on Cis vel citra flumen, on this side ; ci- 

the whole, Cic. : ad ultimum, extre- tra necessitatem, without ; Edo citra 

mum, at last, finally; ad v. in spe- cruditatem, bibe citra ebrietatem, 

ciem, to appearance ; mentis ad om- Senec. 

nia capacitas ; annus fatalis ad inte- Circum & circa regem, about ; Varia 
ntum ; lenius ad severitatem, for, circa haec opinio, Plin. 
with respect to, Cic; ad vivum, sc. Erg a amicos, towards. Extra mures; 
corpus, to the quick; ad judicem Extra jocum, periculum, noxiam, 
agere, before ; nihil ad Caesarem, in sortem, without ; nemo extra te, be» 
comparison of; numero ad duode- sides; extra conjurationem, not con* 
cim, to the number of ; omnes ad cerned in, Sail, 
unum, to a man ; ad hoc, besides ; ad Infra tectum, below the roof. 
vulgi opinionem, according to; homo Inter fratres, among; inter & super 
ad unguem factus, an accomplished coenam, during, in the time of; inter 
man; herbae ad lunam messae, by haec parata, during these preparo- 
le light of, Virg. ; ad tempus venit, tions, Sail. Inter tot annos, in, Cic. 
at; Ira brevis est& ad tempus, for; Inter diem, whence; interdiu, in the 
ad tempus consilium capiam, accord- day-time ; inter se amant, they love 
ing to, Cic. ; ad decern annos, after ; one another; Quasi non norimus nos 
-' annos, ad quinquaginta natus, inter nos, Ter. 

about, Cic. ; nebula erat ad multum Intra privatos parietes, intra paucos 
diei, for a great part of the day, Liv. annos, within ; intra famam est, less 
ad pedes jacere, provolvi, procum- than report, Quinct. 
bere, & ad genua ; ad manus esse, Juxta macellum, near the sJuambles. 
at; ad manus venire, to come to a Ob lucrum, for gain; ob oculos, be- 
close engagement ; ad libellam debe- fore; ob industriam for de indus- 
ri, to a farthing, no more and no less ; tria, on purpose, Plaut. 
ad amussim, exactly; ad haec visa Penes quem, or quem penes, in the 
auditaque, upon seeing and hearing power of; Penes te es? Are you in 
tJtese things, Liv. your senses ? Hor. 

Ad seems sometimes to be taken ad- Per agros, through ; per vim, per sce- 

verbialiy; as, Ad duo millia caesa 1 us, by ; per anni tempus, per aetatem 

sunt ; ad mille hominum amissum licel,/or, by reason of. 

est : ad ducenti perierunt, about, Liv. Pone caput, behind. 

Apud forum, at ; apud me ccenabis, at Post hoc tempus, after ; post tergum, 

my house; apud senatum, judices, v. behind; post homines natos, post 

aliquem dicere, before ; apud majo- hominum memoriam, since the world 

res nostros, among ; apud Xenophon- began. 

tern, in the book of; Est mihi fides, Prater te nemo, nobody besides, or 

vel valeo apud ilium, I have cred- except; praeter casam fugere, fceyond ; 

it with him; facio te apud ilium praeter legem, morem, aequum & bo- 

deum, Ter. num, spem, opinionem, &c. contrary 



CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. 



171 



to, against, beyond; praeter eaeteros 
excellere, lamentari, above; praeter 
ripam ire, along, near ; praeter ocu- 
los, before, Cic. 

Propter virtutem, for, on account of; 
propter sequae rivum, near, hard by, 
Virg. 

Secundum facta & virtutes tuas, ac- 
cording to, Ter. secundum littus, se- 
cundum aurem vulneratus est, near 
to ; in actione secundum voeem vul- 
tus plurimum valet ; secundum pa- 
ttern tu es proximus, after, next to ; 
Praetor secundum me decrevit sen- 
tentiam dedit, for, in my favor, Cic. 

Secus viara, by, along. 



Supra terram, above. 

Trans mare, over, beyond. 

Ultra oceanum, beyond. 

To prepositions governing the accusa- 
tive are commonly added Circiter, 
prope, usque, and versus; as, Cir- 
citer meridiem, about mid-day ; prope 
muros, near the walls ; usque Pute- 
olos, Tharsum usque, as far as; Ori- 
entem versus, towards the east. But 
in these ad is understood ; which we 
find sometimes expressed ; as, Prope 
ad annum, Nep. Ab ovo usque ad 
mala, Hor. Ad oceanum versus, 
Caes. In Italiam versus, Cic. 



IT 2. The Prepositions a, ab, abs, &c. govern the ablative ; 



as, 

A patre, ab omnibus, abs te, by or from ; 
a puero, vet pueris, a pueritia, in cu- 

- nabulis, teneris unguibus, &c. from 
a child, ever since childhood ; ab ovo 
usque ad mala, from the beginning 
to the end of supper ; a manu, sc. 
eervus, an amanuensis or clerk; ad 
raanum, a waiting man ; a pedibus, 
a footman ; a latere principis, an at- 
tendant. So a secretis, rationibus, 
consiliis, cyathis, &c. a secretary, 
accountant, &c ; fores a nobis, for 
nostris. Injuria ab illo, for illius, 
Ter. a coena, after ; Secundus, ter- 
tius a Romulo ; ictus ab latere, on 
or in; b. senatu stare, for, in de- 
fence of; ab oculis doleo, Plaut. ab 
ingenio improbus, a pecunia & mili- 
tibus imparatus, as to, with respect to, 
Cic. Est calor a sole ; omissiores ab 
re, too careless about money ; a villa 
mercenarium vidi, Ter. 

Absque causa, without ; absque te es- 
set, recte ego mihi vidissem, i. e. si 
tu non esses, nisi tu esses, but for 
you, had it not been for you, Ter. 
Absque is chiefly used by comic wri- 
ters ; sine, by orators. 

Clam patre & patrem, without the 
knowledge of. 

Coram omnibus, before, in presence of. 

Cum exercitu, with, testis mecum est 
annulus, in my possession, Ter. cum 
prima luce, at break of day ; cum 
imperio esse, in ; cum primis, in pri- 
mis, in the first place ; cum metu di- 
cere, cum laetitia vivere, cum cura, 
&c. Cic. We say, mecum, tecum, 
secum, nobiscum, vobiscum, rarely ■ 
cum me, cum te, &c. and quocum or 
cumquo, quibuscum or cum quibus. 

De lana caprina rixantur, about, con- 
cerning ; De tanto patrimonio nihil 
relictum est, of; de loco superiore, 



from ; de die, by day ; de nocte, by 
night; de integro, anew, afresh; de 
v. ex improviso, unexpectedly ; de v. 
ex industria, on purpose; de meo, at 
my expense ; Id de lucro putato esse, 
clear gain, Ter. de, v. ex compacto 
agere, by agreement ; de transverso, 
crosswise, athwart ; de v. ex ejus sen- 
tentia, consilio, according to ; qua v. 
hac de causa,/or ; homo de plebej 
templum de marmore, of; descripto 
dicere, to read a speech ; de filio 
emit, from, Cic. De servis fidelissi- 
mus; de ipsius exercitu non amplius 
hominum mille cecidit, Nep. Robur 
de exercitu, Liv. Adolescens de 
summo loco, Plaut. De procul aspi- 
cere, Id. 
E foro, ex asdibus, from, out of; e con- 
trario, v. contraria parte, on the con- 
trary ; e regione, over against ; e re- 
publica, e re alicujus, for the good 
of ; statim e somno, ex fuga, ex tan- 
ta properantia, aliud ex alio malum, 
from, after ; e vestigio, out of hand, 
immediately ; poculum ex auro ; ex 
equo pugnare, on horseback ; facere 
pugnam ex commodo, on advantage- 
ous ground, Sail. ; diem ex die ex- 
pectare, from day to day, day after 
day ; ex ordine, in order ; magna ex 
parte, for the most part ; ex super 
vacuo, superfluously; ex tua digni- 
tate v. virtute, ex decreto senatus, e 
natura, according to; so vulgus ex 
veritate pauca, ex opinione multa 
asstimat; ex v. de more, ad v. in 
morem alicujus: Ex animo, from 
the heart ; Insolentia ex prosperis 
rebus, e via languere, ex doctrina 
nobilis, on account of; ex usu est 
tibi, of advantage ; ex eo die, since ; 
ex amicis certis certissimus, of, or 
among; ex pedibus laborare, to be 



172 



CONSTRUCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. 



ill of the gout, Cic. E re nata, as the 
matter stands, Ter. Commenta ma- 
ter est, esse ex alio viro, nescio quo, 
puerum natum, by, Id. 

Pro gloria certare, for ; Rati noctem 
pro se, favorable to them, Sail. Hoc 
est pro me, Cic. pro templo, tribuna- 
li, concione, rostris, castris, foribus, 
before; pro sua dignitate, sapientia, 
&c. pro potestate cogere, pro tempo- 
re, re, loco, suo jure, according to; 
est pro praetore, pro te molam, comes 
fecundus pro vehiculo est, for, in- 
stead of; pro viribus, pro parte viri- 
li, pro sua quisque parte v. facilitate, 
to one's ability or power ; Parum tibi 
pro eo, quod a te habeo, reddidi, in 
comparison of considering, Cic. pro 
ut, pro eo ae, pro eo ut mereor, as I 
deserve ; pro se quisque, uterq ue, 
&c.for his own pari ; pro rata parte, 
pro portione, in proportion ; pro cive 
se gerit; agere pro victorious; pro 
suo uti ; pro rupto fed us habet, for 
as ; so pro certo, infecto, comperto, 
nihilo, concesso, &c. habeo, duco. 
Pro occiso, relictus est, Cic. 

PitiE se pugionem tulit, before; spe- 
ciem prae se boni viri fert, pretends 



to 6e, Ter. pras lacrymis non possum 
scribere, for, because of; ilium prse 
me contempsi, in comparison of; So 
the adv. prseut ; as, praeut hujus ra- 
bies quae dabit, Ter. 

Palam populo, omnibus, before, with 
the knowledge of 

Sine labore, without ; sine ulla causa, 
pompa, molestia, querela, impensa, 
&c. ; homo sine re, fide, spe, fortunis, 
sede, &c. Cic. 

Capulo tenus, up to the hilt. Tenus 
is construed with the genitive plu- 
ral, when the word wants the sing.; 
as, Cumarum tenus, as far as Cuma ; 
or when we speak of things, of 
which we have by nature only two; 
as, Oculorum, aurium, narium, la- 
brorum, lumborum, crurum tenus, 
up to. We also find Corcyrae tenus, 
& ostiis tenus, Liv. Colchis tenus, 
Flor. Pectoribus tenus, Ovid. 

To prepositions governing the abl. is 
commonly added Procul] as, Pro- 
cul domo, far from home ; but here a 
is understood, which is also often ex- 
pressed; as, Procul a patria, Virg. 
Procul ab ostentione, Quinct. Culpa 
est procul a me, Ter. 



3. PREPOSITIONS governing the Ace. and Abl. 

XLIV. The prepositions in, sub, super, and sui- 
ter, govern the accusative, when motion to a place 
is signified ; but when motion or rest in a place is 
signified, in and sub govern the ablative; super 
and subter either the accusative or ablative. 



IN, when, it signifies into, governs the accusative ; when it 

signifies in or among, it governs the ablative ; as, 

think of to-morrow; Est in diem, 
will happen sometime after, Ter. In- 
ducise in duos menses datae, in hunc 



In urbem ire, into; amor in patriam, 
in te benignus., towards ; in lucem, 
until day ; in earn sententiam, to that 
purpose, on that head ; In rem tuam 
est, for your advantage ; in utram- 
que partem disputare, on both sides, 
'for and against ; litura in nomen, 07?., 
Cic. potestas in filium, over ; in ali- 
quem dicere, against ; mirum in mo- 
dura, after; in pedes stare, in au- 
rem dormire, on ; in os laudare, to, 
before ; in v. inter patres lectus, into 
the number of ; in vulgus probari, 
spargere, &c. among ; crescit in dies, 
in singulos dies, omnes in dies, every 
day; in diem posterum, proximum, 
decimum, against ; in diem vivere, 
to live from hand to mouth, not to 



diem, annum, &c. for ; Ternis assi- 
bus in pedem, v. in singulos pedes, 
transegit, he bargained for three shil- 
lings afoot, or for every foot ; So in 
jugerum, militem, capita, naves, &c. 
In medimna singula, H. S. quinos 
denos dedisti, Cic. 
In portu navigo, in tempore, in ; esse 
in potestate, v. in potestatem, honore 
v. honorem, mente v. mentem; in 
manu v. manibus esse; habere, te- 
nere, in one's power, on hand ; in 
amicis, among ; in ocUlis, before ; 
Occisus est in provinciam, for in 
provincia, Sail. In pueritia; adoles* 






COHSTIfcTJCTION OF PREPOSITIONS. 173 

centla, senectute, absentia, for puer sub urbe, near, Ter. sub ea condi- 

or pueri, when a boy or boys, &c. tione, v. -em, on or with. 

Hoc in tempore, Nep. In loco fra- Super Numidiam, above, beyond ; su- 

tris diligere,/or ut fratrem, Ter. per ripas, upon ; super haec ; super 

Sub terras ibit imago, sub aspectum morbum etiam fames affixit, besides, 

cadit, under; sub ipsum funus, near, Liv. super arbore, fronde super viri- 

just before, Hor. sub lucem, ortum di, upon ; super hac re scribere, his 

lucis, noctem, vesperam, brumam, accensa super, concerning ; alii su- 

i. e. incipiente luce, &c. at the dawn per alios trucidantur, Liv. Super 

of day, &c. sub idem tempus, about; coenam, super vinum & epulas, for 

sub eas literas recitatas sunt tuae, sub inter, during, Curt. Nee super ipse 

festos dies, after, Cic. sua molilurlaude laborem,/or, Virg. 

Sub muro, rege, pedibus, &c. under ; Subter terram vel terra, under. 

Obs. 1. Prepositions in English have always after them the 
accusative or objective case. And when prepositions in Eng« " 
lish or Latin do not govern a case, they are reckoned ad- 
verbs. 

Such are Ante, circa, clam, coram, contra, infra, intra, juxta, palam, pone, 
post, propter, secus, subter, supra, ultra. But in most of these, the case seems 
to be implied in the sense ; as, Longopost tempore venit, sc. post id tempus. Ad- 
versus, juxta, propter, secus, secundum, fy clam, are by some thought to be always 
adverbs, having a preposition understood when they govern a case. So other 
adverbs also are construed with the ace. or abl. ; as, Intus cellam, for intra, Liv. 
Intus templo divam, sc. in, Virg. Simul his, sc. cum, Hor.. 

Obs. 2. A and E are only put before consonants ; ab and 
ex, usually before vowels, and sometimes also before conso- 
nants ; as, 

A patre, a regione ; ab initio, ab rege ; ex urbe, ex parte ; abs before q and I ; 
as T abs te, abs quivis homine, Ter. Some phrases are used only with e ; as, e 
longinquo, e regione, e vestigio, e remea est, &c. Some only with ex ; as, Ex 
compacto, ex tempore, magna ex parte, &c. 

Obs. 3. Prepositions are often understood; as, Devenere locos, scil. ad; It 
portis, sc. ex, Virg. Nunc id prodeo, scil, ob vel propter, Ter. Maria aspera 
jura, scil. per, Virg. Ut se loco mover e, nonposseni, scil. e vel de, Cass. Vina pro- 
mens dolio, scil. ex, Hor. Quid illo facias ? Quid mefiet ? sc. de, Ter. And so in 
English, Show me the book ; Get me some paper, that is, to me, for me. We 
sometimes find the word to which the preposition refers suppressed ; as, Circum 
concordice, sc. &dem, Sail. Round St. Paul's, namely, church ; Campum Stella- 
tern divisit extra sortem ad viginti millibus civium, i. e. civium millibus ad vigin- 
ti millia, Suet. But this is most frequently the case after prepositions in com- 
position ; thus, Emitter e servum, scil. rnanu, Plaut. Evomere virus, scil. ore, Cic 
Educere capias, scil. castras, Caes, 

XLV. A preposition in composition often gov- 
erns the same case, as when it stands by itself; 

as, 

Adeamus scholam, Let us go to the school. 

Exeamus schola, - Let us go out of the school. 

Obs. 1. The preposition with which the word is compounded is often repeat 
ed ; as, Adire ad scholam ; Exire ex schola ; Adgredi aliquid, or ad aliquid ; in- 
gredi orationem vel in arationem ; inducere animum fy in animum ; evadere un- 
dis fy ex undis ; decedere de suojure, decedere via, vel de via ; expellere, ejicere, 
exterminare, extruder e, exturbare urbe, $• ex urbe. Some do not repeat the pre- 
position ; as, Affari, alloqui, aUatrare, aliquem, not ad aliquem. So Alluere ur- 
bem ; accolere Jlumen ; -circumvenire aliquem ; praterire injuriam ; abdicate se 
magistrate, (also abdicare magislratum ;) transducere exercitum fluvium, &c. 

p2 



174 CONSTRUCTION OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Others are only construed with the preposition ; as, Accurrere ad aliquem, ad- 

hortari ad aliquid, incidere in morbum, avocare a studiis, avertere ab incepto, &c. 

Some admit other prepositions ; as, Abire, demigrare loco ; <jr a, de, ex loco ; 

abstrahere aliquem a, de, vel e conspectu ; Desistere sententia, a vel de sententia ; 

' Excidere manibus, de vel e manibus, &c. 

Obs. 2. Some verbs compounded with e or ex govern either 
the ablative or accusative ; as, 

Egredi urbe or urbem, sc. extra ; egredi extra vallum, Nep. Evadere insidiis 
or insidias. Patrios excedere muros, Lucan. Scelerata excedere terra, Virg. 
Elabi ex manibus ; pugnam, vincula, Tac. 

Obs. 3. This rule does not take place, unless when the preposition may be 
disjoined from the verb, and put before the noun by itself; as, Alloquor patrem, 
or loquor ad patrem. 

III. The Construction of Interjections. 

XL VI. The interjections O, heu, and proh, are 
construed with the nominative, accusative, or voc- 
ative; as, 

O vir bonus or bone ! O good man ! Heu me miserum ! Ah wretched me ! 

So, O virfortis atque amicus ! Ter. Heu vanitas humana ! Plin. Heu mise- 
randepuer ! Virg. O praclarum cuslodem ovium (ut aiunt) lupum ! Cic. 

XLVII. Hei and vce govern the dative ; as, 

Hei mild ! Ah me ! F« vobis ! Woe to you ! 

Obs. 1. Heus and ohe are joined only with the vocative; as, Heus Syre,Ter. 
Ohe libelle ! Martial. Proh or pro, ah, vah, hem, have generally either the accu- 
sative or vocative ; as, Proh hominumjidem ? Ter. Proh Sancte Jupiter I Cic 
Hem aslutias ! Ter. 

Obs. 2. Interjections cannot properly have either concord or government. 
They are only mere sounds excited by passion, and have no just connexion 
with any other part of a sentence. Whatever case, therefore, is joined with 
them, must depend on some other word understood, except the vocative, which 
is always placed absolutely; thus, Heu me miserum! stands for Heu! quam 
me miserum sentio! Hei mihi ! for Hei! malum est mihi ! Proh dolor ! for Proh! 
auantus est dolor ! and so in other examples. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

The circumstances which, in Latin, are expressed in differ- 
ent cases, are, 1. The Price of a iking. 2. The Cause, 
Manner, and Instrument. 3. Place. 4. Measure and Dis- 
tance. 5. Time. 

1. Price. 

XLVIIL The price of a thing is put in the ab- 
lative; as, 

Emi librum duobus assibus, I bought a book for two shillings. 

Constitit talento, , It cost a talent. 

So Asse carum est ; vile viginti minis ; auro venale, &c. Nocet empta dolor t 
voluntas, Hor. Spem pretio non emam, Ter. Plurimi auro veneunt honores, 
Ovid. 



' CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 175 

IT These genitives, tanti, quanti, pluris, minoris, are ex- 
cepted ; as, 

Quanti constitit,How much cost it? Asse et pluris, A shilling and more. 

Obs. 1. When the substantive is added, they are put in the ablative ; as, 
parvo, pretio impenso pretio vendere, Cic. 

Obs. 2. Magno,permagno, parvo, paululo, minimo, plurimo, are often used 
without the substantive ; as, Permagno constitit, scil. pretio, Cic. Heu quanta 
regnis nox stetit una tuis ? Ovid, Fast. ii. 812. We also say, Erni care, cariiis, 
carissimh ; bene, melius, optime; male, pejus, vilius, vilissime ; Valde carl cesti- 
mas ; Emit domum prope dimidio cariiis, quam cestimabat, Cic. 

Obs. 3. The ablative of price is properly governed by the preposition pro un- , 
derstood, which is likewise sometimes expressed ; as, Bum pro argenieis decern 
aureus unus valeret, Liv. 

2. Manner and Cause. 

XLIX. The cause, manner, and instrument, are 
put in the ablative; as, 

Palleo metu, I am pale for fear. 

Fecit suo more, He did it after his own w T ay. 

Scribo calamo, I write with a pen. 

So Ardet dotbifc ; pallescere culpa, ; astuare dubitatione ; gestire voluptate vei 
secundis rebus : Confectus morbo ; affectus beneficiis, gravissimo supplicio ; insig- 
nis pietate-; deterior licentia: Pietate jilius, consiliis pater, amore f rater ; hence 
Rex Dei gratia. Paritur pax bello, Nep. Procedere lento gradu ; Acceptus regio 
apparatus: Nullo sono convertitur annus, Juv. Jam venxet tacito curva senecta 
pede, Ovid. Percutere securi, defendere saxis, confgere, sagittis, &c. 

Obs. 1. The ablative is here governed by some preposition understood. Be- 
fore the manner and cause, the preposition is sometimes expressed ; as, De more 
matrum locuta est, Virg. Magno cum metu ; Hac de causa: Prce, marore,formi~ 
dine, &c. But hardly ever before the instrument; as, Vulnerare aliquem gla- 
dio, not cum gladio, unless among the poets, who sometimes add a or ab ; as, 
Trajectus ab ense, Ovid. - 

Obs. 2. When any thing is said to be in company with another, it is called the 
ablative of Concomitancy, and has the preposition cum usually added, as, Obse- 
dit curiam cum gladiis : Ingressus est cum gladio, Cic. 

Obs. 3. Under this rule are comprehended several other circumstances, as 
the matter of which any thing is made, and what is called by grammarians the 
ADJUNCT, that is, a noun in the ablative joined to a verb or adjective, to ex- 
press the character or quality of the person or thing spoken of; as, Capitolium 
saxo quadrato constructum, Liv. Floruit acumine ingenii, Cic. PoUet opibus, 
valet armis, viget memoria fama nobilis, &c. JEger pedibus. When we ex- 
press the matter of which any thing is made, the preposition is usually added ; 
as, Templum de marmore, seldom marmoris ,* Poculum ex auro factum, Cic 

3. Place. 

The circumstances of place may be reduced to four par- 
ticulars. 1. The place where, or in which. 2. The place whi- 
ther, or to which. S. The place whence, or from which. 4. 
The place by, or through which. 

At or in a place is put in the genitive, unless the noun be 
of the third declension, or of the plural number, and then it 
is expressed in the ablative. 



176 CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

To a place is put in the accusative ; from or by a place, in 
the ablative. 

But these cases will be more exactly ascertained by re- 
ducing the circumstances of place to particular questions. 

1. The Place Where. 

L. When the question is made by Ubi ? Where ? 
the name of a town is put in the genitive ; as, 

Vivit Romce, He li\ed at Rome. 

Morluus est Londini, He died at London. 

IT But if the name of a town be of the third declension or^ 
plural number, it is expressed in the ablative ; as, 

Habitat Carthagine, . He dwells at Carthage. 

Studuit Parisiis, He studied at Paris. 

Obs. 1. When a thing is said to be done, not in the place 

itself, but in its neighborhood, or near it, we always use the 

preposition ad or apud; as, Ad or apud Trojam, At or near 

Troy. g 

Obs. 2. The name of a town, when put in the ablative, is here governed by 
the preposition in .understood ; but if it be in the genitive, we must supply in 
urbe, or in oppido. Hence, when the name of a town is joined with an adjec- 
tive or common noun, the preposition is generally expressed ; thus, we do not 
say, Natus est Romce urbis Celebris : but either Romce in celebri urbe, or in Romm 
celebri urbe ; or in Roma celebri urbe, or sometimes Romce celebri urbe. In like 
manner, we usually say, Habitat in urbe Carthagine, with the preposition. We 
.likewise find, Habitat Cartftagini, which is sometimes the termination of the 
ablative, when the question is made by ubi ? 

2. The Place Whither. 

LI. When the question is made by Quo ? Whi- 
ther ? the name of a town is put in the accusa- 
tive; as, 

Venit Romam, He came to Rome. 

Profectus est Athenas. He went to Athens. 

Obs. 1. We find the dative also used among the poets, but more seldom ; as, 
Carthagini nuncios mittam, Horat. 

Obs. 2. Names of towns are sometimes put in the accusative, after verbs of 
telling and giving, where motion to a place is implied ; as, Romam erat nunci* 
atum, The report was carried to Rome, Li v. Hcec nunciant domum Albani, Id.. 
Messanam litems dedit, Cic. 

3. The Place Whence. 

LIL When the question is made by Unde? 
Whence ? or Qua ? By or through what place ? the 
name of a town is put in the ablative ; as, 



CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 177 

Discessit Corintho, He departed from Corinth. 

Laodicea iter faciebat, "He went through Laodicea. 

When motion by or through a place is signified, tf:e preposition per is com- 
monly used ; as, Per Thebas iter fecit, Nep. 

Domus and Rus. 

LIII. Domus and rus are construed the same 
way as names of towns ; as, 

Manet domi, He stays at home. 

Domum revertitur, He returns home. 

Domo arcessitus sum, I am called from home. 

Vwit rure, or more frequently ruri, He lives in the country. 

Rediit rure, He is returned from the country. 

Abiit rus, He is gone to the country. 

Obs. 1. Humi, militia, and belli, are likewise construed in 
the genitive, as names of towns ; thus,* 

Domi et militia, or belli, At home and abroad. Jacet humi, He lies on the 
ground. 

Obs. 2. When Domus is joined with an adjective, we commonly use a prepo- 
sition ; as, In domo paterna, not domi paterna ; So, Ad domum paternam ; Ex 
domo paterna. Unless when it is joined with these possessives, Meus, tuus, suus, 
noster, vester, regius, and alienus; as, Domi mece vixit, Cic. Regiam domum com- 
portant, Sail. 

Obs. 3. When domus has another substantive in the genitive after it, the pre- 
position is sometimes used, and sometimes not ; as, Deprehensus est domi, domo r 
or in domo Cessans. 

LIV. To names of countries, provinces, and all 
Other places, except towns, the preposition is com- 
monly added ; as, 

When the question is made* by 

Ubi ? Natus in Italia, in Latio, in urbe, &c. 

Quo ? Abiit in Italiam, in Latium, in, or ad urbem, &c. 

Unde 1 Rediit ex Italia, e latio, ex urbe, &c. 

Qua ? Transiitper Italiam, per Latiam, per urbem, &c. 

Obs. 1. A preposition is often added to names of towns j as, 
In Roma, for Romce ; ad Romam, ex Roma, &c. 

Peto always governs the accusative as an active verb, with- 
out a preposition ; as, Petivit Egypium, He went to Egypt. 

Obs. 2. Names of countries, provinces, &c. are sometimes construed without 
the preposition, like names of towns ; as, Pompeius Cypri visus est, Caes. Crete 
jussit considere Apollo, Virg. Non Libya, for in Libya ; non ante Tyro, for 
Tyri, Id. JEn. iv. 36. Venit Sardiniam, Cic. Roma, Numidiaque facinora 
(jus memorat, Sail. 

4. Measure and Distance. 

LV. Measure or distance is put in the accusa- 
tive, and sometimes in the ablative ; as, 

Murus est decern pedes alius, The wall is ten feet high* 



178 CONSTRUCTION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

Urbs distat trisinta millkz, or triginta > mi, •* • <u ■ ■ . i j- , 

aiSi&wjxiiiKim, \ .J The eity is thirty miles distant, 

lifer, or itinere unius diei, One day's journey. 

Obs. 1. The accusative or ablative of measure is put after 
adjectives and verbs of dimension ; as, Longus, latus, crassus, 
profundus, and alius : Patet, porrigitur, eminet, &c. The 
names of measure are, pes, cubitus, ulna, passus, digitus, an 
inch ; palmus, a span, a hand-breadth, &c. The accusative 
or ablative of distance is useH only after verbs which express 
motion or distance ; as, JEo, curro, absum, disto, &c. The 
accusative is governed by ad or per understood, and the abla- 
tive by a or ab. 

Obs. 2. When we express the measure of more things than one, we com- 
monly use the distributive number; as, Muri sunt denos pedes alti, and 
sometimes denum pedum, for denorum, in the genitive, ad mensuram being un- 
derstood. But the genitive is only used to express the measure of things in the 
plural number. 

Obs. 3. When we express the distance of a place where any thing is done, 
we commonly use the ablative; or the accusative with the preposition ad; as, 
Sex millibus passuum ab urbe consedit, or ad sex millia passuum, Cses. Ad quin- 
turn milliarium v. milliare consedit, Cic. Ad quintum lapidem, Nep. 

Obs. 4. The excess or difference of measure and distance 
is put in the ablative ; as, 

Hoc lignum excedit illud digito. Toto vertice supra est, Virg. Britannia Ion- 
gitudo ejus latitudinem ducentis auadraginta milliaribus superat. 

5. Time. 

LVI. When the question is made by Quando ? 
When ? time is put in the ablative ; as, 

Venit hora tertia, He came at three o'clock. 

IT When the question is made by Quamdiu ? How long ? 
time is put in the accusative or ablative, but oftener in the 
accusative ; as 3 

Mandt paucos dies, He staid a few days. 

Sex mensibus abfuit, He was away six months. 

# Or thus, Time when is put in the ablative, time how long 
is put in the accusative. 

Obs. 1. When we speak of any precise time, it is put in 
the ablative; but when continuance of time is expressed, it 
is put for the most part in the accusative. 

Obs. 2. All the circumstances of time are often expressed with a preposition; 
as, In pr&sentia, or in prcesenti, scil. tempore ; in vel ad prcesens ; Per decern 
annos ; Surgunt de nocte ; ad horam destinatam ; Intra annum ; Per idem tern' 
pus, ad Kalendas soluturos ait, Suet. The preposition ad or circa, is some- 
times suppressed, as in these expressions, hoc, illud, id, isthuc, cetatis, temporis, 
horce, &c. for Ivac estate, hoc tempore, &c. And ante, or some other word; as, 
Annos natus unum tyviginti, sc. ante. Siculi quotannis tributa conferunt, sc. tot 
annis,quot vel quotquot sunt, Cic. Prope diem, sc. ad, soon; Oppidum paucis 



CONSTRUCTION OF RELATIVES. 17£ 

diebus, quibus eb ventum est, expugnatum, sc. post eos dies, Caes. Ante diem ter- 
tium Kalendas Maias accepi tuas litems, for die tertio ante, Cic. Qui dies futU' 
rus esset in ante diem octavum Kalendas Novembris, Id. Ex ante diem quin- 
turn Kal. Octob. Li v. Lacedamonii septingentos jam annos amplius unis mori- 
buset nunquam mutatis legibus vivunt, sc. quam per, Cic. We find, Primum 
stipendium meruit annorum decern septemque, sc. Atticus ; for septemdecim annos 
natus, seventeen years old, Nep. 

Obs. 3. The adverb ABHINC, which is commonly used with respect to 
past time, is joined with the accusative or ablative without a preposition; as, 
factum est abhinc biennio or biennium, It was done two years ago. So like- 
wise are post and ante; as, Paucospost annos: but here, ea or id, may be un- 
derstood. 



COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

A compound sentence is that which has more than one 
nominative, or one finite verb. 

A compound sentence is made up of two or more simple 
sentences or phrases, and is commonly called a Period. 

The parts of which a compound sentence consists, are 
called Members or Clauses. * 

In every compound sentence there are either several subjects and one attri- 
bute, or several attributes and one subject, or both several subjects and several 
attributes : that is, there are either several nominatives applied to the same 
verb, or several verbs applied to the same nominative, or both. 

Every verb marks a judgment or attribute, and every attribute must have a 
subject There must, therefore, be in every sentence or period, as many prepo- 
sitions as there are verbs of a finite mode. 

Sentences are compounded by means of rela- 
tives and conjunctions ; as, 
Happy is the man who loveth religion, and practiseth virtue. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF RELATIVES. 

LVII. The relative Qui, Quce, Quod, agrees 
with the antecedent in gender, number, and person ; 
and is construed through all the cases, as the ante- 
cedent would be in its place ; as, 

Singular. Plural. 

Vir qui, The man who. Viri qui. 

Fcemina qua, The woman who. Fccmina qua. 

Negotium quod, The thing which. Negotia quae. 

Ego qui scribo, I who write. Nos qui scribimus. 

Tu qui scribis, Thou who writest. Vos qui scribitis. 

Vir qui scribit, The man who writes. Viri qui scribunt 

Mulier quce scribit, The woman who writes. Mulieres qua scribunt. 

Animal quod currit, The animal which runs. Animalia qua currunU 

Vir quern vidi, The man whom I saw. Viri quos vidi. 

Mulier quam vidi, The woman whom I saw, Mulieres quas vidi. 

Animal quod vidi. The animal which I saw. Animalia qua vidi. 



180 CONSTRUCTION OF RELATIVES. 

Vir cuiparet, The man whom he obeys. Viri quibusparet. 

Vir cui est similis, The man to whom he is like. Viri quibus est similis. 
Vir a quo, The man by whom. Viri a quibus. 

Mitlier ad quam, The woman to whom. Mulieres ad quas. 

Vir cujus opus est, The man whose work it is. Viri quorum opus est 
Vir quern miseror, ^ 

cujus miseror, vel miseresco, > The man whom I pity. 

cujus me miseret, J 

cujus vel cuja interest, &c. whose interest it is, &c. 

TT If no nominative come between the relative and the verb, 
the relative will be the nominative to the verb. 

IF But if a nominative come between the relative and the 
verb, the relative will be of that case, w T hich the verb or 
noun following, or the preposition going before, usually governs. 

Thus the construction of the relative requires an acquaint- 
ance with most of the foregoing rules of syntax, and may 
serve as an exercise on all of them. 

Obs. 1. The relative must always have an antecedent ex- 
pressed or understood, and therefore may be considered as 
an adjective placed between two cases of the same substan- 
tive, of which the one is always expressed, generally the for- 
mer ; as, 

Vir qui (vir) legit; vir quern (virum) amo: Sometimes the latter; as, Quam 
quisque nbrit artem, in hac (arte) se exerceat, Cic. Eunuchum, quern dedisti no- 
bis, quas turbas dedit, Ter. se. Eunuchus. Sometimes both cases are expressed ; 
as, Erant omnino duo itinera, quibus itineribus domo exire possent, Caes. Some- 
times, though more rarely, both cases are omitted ; as, Sunt, quos hoc genus 
minimejuvat, for sunt homines, quos homines, &c. Hor. 

Obs. 2. When the relative is placed between two substan- 
tives of different genders, it may agree in gender with either 
of them, though most commonly with the former ; as, 

VuUus quern dixere chaos, Ovid. Est locus in carcere, quod Tullianum appel- 
lator, Sail. Animal, quern vocamus hominem, Cic. Cogito id quod, res est/Ter. 
If a part of a sentence be the antecedent, the relative is always put in the 
neuter gender ; as, Pompeius se afflixit, quod nihil est summo dolori, scil. Pom- 
; peium se affligere, Cic. Sometimes the relative does not agree in gender with 
the antecedent, but with some synonymous word supplied ; as, Scelus qui for 
scelestus, Ter. Abundantia earum rerum, qu& mortales prima putant, scil. nego- 
tia, Sail. Vel virtus tua me vel vicinitas, quod ego in aliqua parte amicitiai puto, 
facit ut te moneam, scil. negotium, Ter. In omni Africa, qui agebant ; for in 
omnibus Afris, Sallust, Jug. 89. Non diffidentia f uteri, qum imperavisset, for 
quod, lb. 100. 

Obs. 3. When the relative comes after two words of differ* 
ent persons, it agrees with the first or second person rather 
than the third; as, Ego sum vir, quifacio, scarcely facit. In 
English it sometimes agrees with either ; as, / am the man, 
who make or maketh. But when once the person of the rela- 
tive is fixed, it ought to be continued through the rest of the 
sentence ; thus it is proper to say, " I am the man who takes 
care of your interest," but if I add, "at the expense of my 



CONSTRUCTION OF RELATIVES. 181 

own," it would be improper. It ought either to be, " his own," 
or " who take." In like manner, we may say, " I thank you, 
who gave, who did love," &c. But it is improper to say, " I 
thank thee, who gave, who did love :" it should be, " who gavest, 
who didst love." In no part of the English syntax are inac- 
curacies committed more frequently than in this. Beginners 
are particularly apt to fall into them, in turning Latin into 
English. The reason of it seems to be our applying thou or 
you, thy or your, promiscuously, to express the second person 
singular, whereas the Latins almost always expressed it by 
tu and tuus. 

Obs. 4. The antecedent is often implied in a possessive 
adjective ; as, 

Omnes laudare fortunas meas, qui haberem gnatum tali ingenio prceditum, Ter. 
Sometimes the antecedent must be drawn from the sense of the foregoing 
words ; as, Came pluit, quern imbrem aves rapuisse feruntur ; i. e. pluit imbrern 
came, quern imbrem, &c. Liv. Si tempus est ullum jure homines necandi, qum 
multa sunt, scil. tempora, Cic. 

Obs. 5. The relative is sometimes entirely omitted ; as, Urbs antiqua fuit ; 
Tyrii tenuere coloni, scil. quam or earn, Virg. Or if once expressed, is afterwards 
omitted, so that it must be supplied in a different case ; as, Bocchus cum pediti' 
bus, quos filius ejus adduxerat, neque in priore pugna adfuerat, Romanos inva- 
dunt ; for quique in priore pugna non adfuerant, Sail. In English the relative is 
often omitted, where in Latin it must be expressed; as, The letter I wrote, for 
the letter which I wrote ; The man Hove, to wit, whom. But this omission of the 
relative is generally improper, particularly in serious discourse. 

Obs. 6. The case of the relative sometimes seems to depend on that of the 
antecedent ; as, Cum aliquid agas eorum, quorum consuesti, for quce consuesti 
agere, or quorum aliquid agere consuesti, Cic. Restitue in quern me accepisli 
locum for in locum, in quo, Ter. And. iv. 1. 53. But such examples rarely 
occur. 

Obs. 7. The adjective pronouns, ille, ipse, iste, hie, is, and idem, in their con- 
struction resemble that of the relative qui; as, Liber ejus, His or her book; 
Vita eorum, Their life, when applied to men ; Vita earum, Their life, when ap- 
plied to women. By the improper use of these pronouns in English, the mean- 
ing of sentences is often rendered obscure. 

Obs. 8. The interrogative or indefinite adjectives, qualis, quantas, quotus, &c. 
are also sometimes construed like relatives; as, Fades est, qualem decet esse 
sororum, Ovid. But these have commonly other adjectives, either expressed or 
understood, which answer to them ; as, Tanta est multitudo quantum urbs cajyere 
potest ; and are often applied to different substantives ; as, Quales sunt cives, 
talis est civitas, Cic. 

Obs. 9. The relative who in English is applied only to persons, and which to 
things and irrational animals; but formerly which was likewise applied to per- 
sons, as, Our Father, which art in heaven: and whose, the genitive of who, is also 
used sometimes, though perhaps improperly, for of which. That is used indif- 
ferently for persons and things. What, when not joined with a substantive, is 
only applied to things, and includes both the antecedent and the relative, being 
the same with that which, or the thing which ; as, This is what he wanted; that 
is, the thing which he wanted. 

Obs. 10. The Latin relative often cannot be translated literally into English, 
on account of the different idioms of the two languages ; as, Quod cum ita esset> 
When that was so ; not, Which when it was so, because then there would be 
two nominatives to the verb loas, which is improper. Sometimes the accusative 
of the relative in Latin must be rendered by the nominative in English ; as* 

Q 



182 CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Quern dicunt me esse? Who do they say that I am? not whom. Quern dicunt 
adventare ? Who do they say is coming ? 

Obs. 11. As the relative is always connected with a different verb from the 
antecedent, it is usually construed with the subjunctive mode, unless when 
the meaning of the verb is expressed positively ; as, Audire cupio, quce legeris t 
I want to hear, what you have read ; that is, what perhaps or probably you may 
have read ; Audire cupio, quce legisti, I want to hear, what you {actually or in 
in fact) have read. 

To the construction of the Relative may be subjoined that 

of the ANSWER TO A QUESTION. 

The answer is commonly put in the same case with the 
question ; as, 

Qui vocare ? Geta, sc. vocor. Quid quceris ? Librum, sc. qucero. Quoth hora 
venisti ? Sexto,. Sometimes the construction is varied ; as, Cujus est liber f 
Meus, not mei. Quanti emptus est ? Decern assibus. Damnatusne es furti ? Imo 
alio crimine. Often the answer is made by other parts of speech than nouns ; 
as, Quid agitur? Statur, sc. a me, a nobis. Quis fecit? Nescio: Aiunt Petrum 
fecisse. Quomodo vales ? Bene, male. Scripsistine : Scripsi, ita, etiam, immo, 
&c. Anvidisti: Non vidi, non minime, &c. Chcerea tuam vestem detraxit tibi? 
Factum. Et ea est indutus ? Factum, Ter. Most of the Rules of Syntax may 
ihus be exemplified in the form of questions and answers. 



THE CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

LVIIL The conjunctions et, at, atque, nee, neque^ 
aut, vel, and some others, couple like cases and 
modes; as, 

Honora pattern et matrem, Honor father and mother. 

Nee legit nee scribit, . He neither reads nor writes. 

Obs. 1. To this rule belong particularly the copulative and 
disjunctive conjunctions ; as likewise quam, nisi, prceterquam, 
an ; and also adverbs of likeness ; as, ceu, tanquam, quasi, ut, 

&c. as, 

Nullum prcemium a vobis postulo, prmterquam hujus diei memoriam, Cic. Glo- 
ria virtutem tanquam, umbra sequitur, Id. 

Obs. 2. These conjunctions properly connect the different 
members of a sentence together, and are hardly ever applied 
to single words, unless when some other word is understood. 
Hence if the construction of the sentence be varied, different 
cases and modes may be coupled together ; as, 

Interest mea et reijmblicm ; Constitit asse et pluris; Sive es 
Roma, sive in Epiro ; D edits cum se devoveret, et in mediam 
aciem irruebdt, Cic. Vir magni ingenii summaque industrid ; 
Neque per vim, neque insidiis, Sail. Tecum habita, 6f noris, 
quam sit tibi curta supellex, Pers. 

Obs. 3. When et, aid, vel, sive, or nee, are joined to different 
members of the same sentence, without connecting it particu- 
larly to any former sentence, the first et is rendered in English 



CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 1S3 

by both or likewise; aut or vel, by either; the first sive, by 
whether ; and the first nee, by neither ; as, 

Et legit, et scribit: so turn legit, turn scribit; or cum legit, turn scribit, He both 
reads and writes; Sive legit, sive scribit, Whether he reads or writes; Jacere 
qua vera, qua falsa. Increpare qua consules ipsos, qua exercitum, to upbraid both 
the consuls and the array, Liv. 

LIX. Two or more substantives singular cou- 
pled by a conjunction, (as, et, ac, atque, &c.) have 
an adjective, verb, or relative plural ; as, 

Petrus et Joannes, qui sunt docti, Peter and John, who are learned. 

Obs. 1. If the substantives be of different persons, the verb 
plural must agree with the first person rather than the second, 
and with the second rather than the third ; as, Si tu et Tullia 
valetis, ego et Cicero valemus, If you and Tullia are well, I 
and Cicero are well, Cic. In English, the person speaking 
usually puts himself last ; thus, You and I read ; Cicero and 
I are well : but in Latin, the person who speaks is generally 
put first ; thus, Ego et tu legimus. 

Obs. 2. If the substantives are of different genders, the 
adjective or relative plural must agree with the masculine 
rather than the feminine or neuter ; as, Pater et mater, qui 
sunt mortui ; but this is only applicable to beings which may 
have life. The person is sometimes implied ; as, Athenarum 
et Cratippi, ad quos, &c. Propter summam doctoris auctori- 
tatem et urbis, quorum alter, &c. Cic. Where Athence Sp urbs 
are put for the learned men of Athens. So in substantives ; as, 
Ad Ptolemmum Cleopatramque reges legati missi, i. e. the 
king and queen, Liv. 

Obs. 3. If the substantives signify things without life, the 
adjective or relative plural must be put in the neuter gender ; 
as, Divitice, decus, gloria, in oculis sita sunt, Sail. 

The same holds, if any of the substantives signify a thing without life ; be- 
cause when we apply a quality, or join an adjective to several substantives of 
different genders, we must reduce the substantive to some certain class under 
wmich they may all be comprehended, that is, to what is called their Genus. 
Now the Genus, or class which comprehends under it both persons and things. 
is that of substances or beings in general, which are neither masculine ncr 
feminine. To express this, the Latin grammarians use the word Negotia. 

Obs. 4. The adjective or verb frequently agrees with the 
nearest substantive or nominative, and is understood to the 
rest ; as, 

Et ego et Cicero meus flagitabit, Cic. Sociis et rege recepto, Virg. Et ego in 
cidpa sum, et tu. Both I am in the fault and you ; or, Et ego et tu es in culpa, 
Both I and you are in the fault. Nihil hie nisi carmina desunt ; or nihil hie 
deest nisi carmina. Omnia, quibus turbari solita eral civitas, domi discordia, 
foris helium exortum ; Duo millia et quadringenti c&si, Liv. This construction 



184 CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

is most usual, when the different substantives resemble one another in the 
sense ; as, Mens, ratio, et consilium, in senibus est, Understanding, reason, and 
prudence, is in old men. Quibus, ipse meique ante harem proprium vescor, for 
vescimur, Horat. 

Obs. 5. The plural is sometimes used after the preposition 
cum put for et ; as, 

Remo cumfratre Quirinus jura ddbunt, Virg. The conjunction is frequently 
understood ; as, Bum cetas, metus, magister prohibebant, Ter. Frons, occuli, vvi- 
tus scepe mentiuntur, Cic. 

The different examples comprehended under this rule are commonly referred 
to the figure Syllepsis. 

LX. The conjunctions ut, quo, licet, ne, utinam, 
and dummodo, are for the most part joined to the 
subjunctive mode; as, 

Lego ut discam, I read that I may learn. 

Utinam saperes, I wish you were wise. 

Obs. 1. All interrogates, when placed indefinitely, have 
after them the subjunctive mode. 

Whether they be adjectives; as, Quantus, qualis, quotus, quotuplex, titer? 
Pronouns ; as, quis <J- cujas; Adverbs, as, Ubi, quo, unde quo, quorsum, quamdiu r 
quamdudum, quampridem,quoUes, cur, quare, quamobrem, num, utrum, quomodo f 
qui, ut, quam, quantopere; or conjunctions, as, ne, an, anne, annon: Thus, Quis 
est ? Who is it ? Nescio quis sit ; I do not know who it is. An venturus est ? 
Nescio, dubito, an venturus sit ; Viden ut alia stet nive candidum, Soracte ? Hor. 
But these words are sometimes joined with the indicative ; as, Scio quid ego f 
Plaut. Haud scio, au amat, Ter. Vide avaritia, quid facit, Id. Vides quam 
turpe est, Cic. 

IT In like manner the relative QUI in a continued discourse ; as, Nihil est 
quod Deus efficere non possit. Quis est qui utiliafugiat ? Cic. Or when joined 
with QUIPPE or UTPOTE : Neque Antonius procul aberat, utpote qui sequere- 
tur, $c. Sail. But these are sometimes, although more rarely, joined witn the 
indicative. So Est qui sunt qui, est quando v. ubi, &c. are joined with the in- 
dicative or subjunctive. 

NOTE. Haud scio an recie dixerim, is the same with dico, affirmo, Cic. 

So in English, if, though, unless, except, whatever, whether, 
or ; also, so, before, ere, till, &c. have after them the subjunc- 
tive mode ; as, If thou let this man go : If thou be the Son 
of God ; Although my house be not so ; Though he slay me ; 
Though he fall, &c. Unless he wash his feet; I will not let 
thee go except thou bless me ; Except it were given from 
above ; Whether it were I or they ; Whosoever he be ; What- 
ever be our fate, &c. So likewise that, expressing the mo- 
tive or end ; lest and that annexed to a command preceding ; 
and if with but following it ; as, Let him that standeth take 
heed lest he fall; Beware that thou bring not my son thi- 
ther ; If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke. 

The nominative case following the verb sometimes supplies 
the place of if or though ; as, " Had he done this, he had es- 
caped," i. e. if he had done this : " Charm he never so wisely," 



CONSTRUCTION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 185 

or rather, ever so wisely, i. e. Jwiv wisely soever ; for, though 

he charm, &c. 

Obs. 2. When any thing doubtful or contingent is signified, 

conjunctions and indefinites are usually construed with the 

subjunctive ; but when a more absolute or determinate sense 

is expressed, with the indicative mode ; as, If he is to do it, 

Although he was rich, &c. 

Obs. 3. ETSI, TAMETSI, and TAMENETSI, QUANQUAM, in the be- 
ginning of a sentence, have the indicative, but elsewhere they also take the 
subjunctive. ETIAMSI and QUAMVIS commonly have the subjunctive, and 
UT, although, always has it ; as, Ut quceras non reperies, Cic. QUONIAM, 
QUANDO, QUANDOQUIDEM, are usually construed with the indicative; 
SI, SIN, NE, NISI, SIQUIDEM; QUOD, and QUIA, sometimes with the in- 
dicative, and sometimes with the subjunctive. DUM, for, dummodo, provided, 
has always the subjunctive ; as, Oderint dum metuant, Cic. And QUIPPE, for 
7iam, always the indie. ; as, Quippe vetor fatis. 

Obs. 4. Some conjunctions have their correspondent con- 
junctions belonging to them ; so that, in the following members 
of the sentence, the latter answers to the former : thus, when 
etsi, tametsi, or quamvis, although, are used in the former 
member of a sentence, tamen, yet or nevertheless, generally 
answers to them in the latter. In like manner, Tarn — quam ; 
Adeo or ita, — ut : in English, As, — as or so; as, Etsi sit 
liberalis, tamen non est profusus, Although he be liberal, yet 
he is not profuse. So prius or ante, — quam. In some of 
these, however, we find the latter conjunction sometimes 
omitted, particularly in English. 

Obs. 5. The conjunction ut is elegantly omitted after these 
verbs, Yolo, nolo, malo, rogo, precor, censeo, suadeo, licet, 
oportet, necesse est, and the like ; and likewise after these im- 
peratives, Sine, fac, or facito ; as, Ducas volo hodie uxorem ; 
Nolo mentiare ; Fac cogites, Ter. In like manner ne is com- 
monly omitted after cave ; as, Cave facias, Cic. Post is also 
sometimes understood ; thus, Die octavo, quam creatus erat, 
Liv. 4. 47, scil. post. And so in English, See you do it; I beg 
you would come to me, scil. that. 

Obs. 6. Ut and quod are thus distinguished ; ut denotes the final cause, and is 
commonly, used with regard to something future; quod marks the efficient or 
impulsive cause, and is generally used concerning the event or thing done ,• as, 
Lego ut discam, I read that I may learn ; Gaudeo quod legi, I am glad that or 
because I have read. Ut is likewise used after these intend ve words, as they 
are called, Adeo, ita, sic, tarn, talis, tantus, tot, &c. 

Obs. 7. After the verbs timeo, vereor, and the like, ut is 
taken in a negative sense for ne non, and ne in an affirmative 
sense ; as, 

Timeo ne faciat, I fear he will do it; Timeo ut faciat, I fear he will not do it, 
Id paves ne ducas in illam, tu autem ut ducas, Ter. Ut sis vitalis, meluo, Hor. 
Timeo ut f rater vivat, will not; — ne f rater moriatur y Yi\\\. But in some few 
examples, they seem to have a contrary meaning. 

a 2 



186 CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES. 

THE CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES. 

LXI. The comparative degree governs the ab- 
lative; as, 

Dukior mette, sweeter than honey. Prcestantior auro, better than gold. 

Obs. 1. The sign of the ablative in English is than. The 
positive with the adverb magis, likewise governs the ablative : 
as, magis dilecta luce, Virg. 

The ablative is here governed by the preposition prce understood, which is 
sometimes expressed ; as, Fortior quce ceteris. We find the comparative also 
construed with other prepositions ; as, immanior ante omnes, Virg. 

Obs. 2. The comparative degree may likewise be con- 
strued with the conjunction quam, and then, instead of the 
ablative, the noun is to be put in whatever case the sense 
requires; as, 

Dulcior quam met, scil. est: Amo te magis quam ilium,) I love you more than 
him, that is, quam amo ilium, than I love him. Amo te magis quam ille, I love 
you more than he, i. e. quam ille amat, than he loves-. Plus datur a me quam 
illo, sc. ab. 

Obs. 3. The conjunction quam is often elegantly suppressed 
after amplius and plus ; as, 

Vidnerantur amplius sexcenti, Caes. scil. quam. Plus quingentos colaphos infregit 
mihi, he has laid on me more than five hundred blows, Ter. Castra at urbe 
haud plus quinque millia passuum locant, sc. quam, Liv. 

Quam is sometimes elegantly placed between two compara- 
tives; as, 

Triumphus clarior quam gratior, Liv. Or the prep, pro is added ; as, Prcelium 
atrocius, quam pro numero pugnantium editur, Liv. 

The comparative is sometimes joined with these ablatives, 

opinione, spe, cequo,justo, dicta; as, 

Credibili opinione major, Cic. Credibili fortior, Ovid, Fast. iii. 618. Gmvius 
aequo, Sail. Dido citius, Virg. Majoi-a credibili tulimus, Liv. They are often 
understood ; as, Liberius vivebat, sc.justo, too freely, Nepos. 

Nihil is sometimes elegantly used for nemo or nulli ; as, 

Nihil vidi quidquam latius, for neminem, Ter. Crasso nihil perfectius, Cic. As- 
perius nihil est humili, cum surgit in altum. So quid nobis laboriosius^ for quis, 
&c. Cic. We say, inferior patre nulla re, or quam pater. The comparative is 
sometimes repeated or joined with an adverb; as, Magis magisque, plus plusque r 
minus minusque, carior cariorque ; Quotidie plus, indies magis, semper candidior 
candidiorque, &c. 

Obs. 4. In English, the relative who after than is always 
put in the accusative case ; as, He is a man, than whom there 
is none better : but here if we substitute a pronoun in place 
of the relative, the pronoun must be put in the nominative ; as, 
There is none better than he, not, than him. In like manner, 
it is improper to say, He is better than we, than us, than her, 
than them, &c. It should be, He is better than i, than we, 



ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 187 

than she, than they, &c. the auxiliary verb being understood 
to each of them. 

Obs. 5. The relation of equality or sameness is likewise 
expressed in English by conjunctions; as, Est tarn doctus 
quam ego. He is as learned as I. Animus erga te idem est 
ac fuiu Ac and atque are sometimes, though more rarely, 
used after comparatives ; as, Nihil est magis verum atque hoc, 
Ter. 

Obs. 6. The excess or defect of measure is put in the abla- 
tive after comparatives ; and the sign in English is by, ex- 
pressed or understood; (or more shortly, the difference of 
measure is put in the ablative ;) as, 

Est decern digitis altior quam f rater, He is ten inches taller than his brother, 
or by ten inches. Altero tanto major est fratre, i. e. duplo major, he is as big 
again as his brother, or twice as big. Sesquipede minor, a foot and a half less ; 
Altero tanto, aut sesquimajor, as big again, or a half bigger, Cic. Ter tanto pe- 
jor est ; Bis tanto amid sunt inter se, quam prius, Plaut. Quinquies tanto am* 
plius quam quantum licitum sic civiiatibus imperavit, five times more, Cic. To 
this may be added many other ablatives, which are joined with the compara- 
tive to increase its force ; as, Tanto, quanta, quo, eo, hoc, multo, paulo, nimio, &c. 
thus, Quo plus habent, eo plus cupiunt, The more they have, the more they de- 
sire. Quanta melior, tanto felicior, The better, the happier. Quoque minor 
spes est, hoc magis ille cupit r Ovid, Fast. ii. 766. We frequently find multo, 
tanto, quanta, also joined with superlatives ;. Multo pulcherrimam earn haberemus, 
Sail. Mulioque id maximum fuit, Liv. 

THE ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

LXIL A substantive and a participle are put in 
the ablative, when their case depends on no other 
word; as, 

S oleoriente,fugiurUtenebr., i ^Ze^r^^^^^ 

Opereperacto, ludemus, \ ^ ^f^^^™ ™ 

So, Dominante libidine, temperantice nullus est locus ; Nihil amicitid prastabi- 
lius est, excepta virtute ; Oppressa, libertate patrice, nihil est quod speremus, am- 
plius; Nobxlium vitavictuque mutato, mores mutari civitatum puto, Cic. Parum- 
per silentium et quiesfuit, nee Etruscis, nisi cogerentur, pugnam inituris, et die- 
tatore arcem Romanam respeclante, ut ab auguribus, simul aves rite admissent, ex 
composito toUeretur signum, Liv. Bellice, depositis clypeo paulisper et hasta, 
Mars, ades, Ovid, Fast. iii. 1. 

Obs. 1. This ablative is called Absolute, because it does 

not depend upon any other word in the sentence. 

For if the substantive with which the participle is joined, be either the nomi- 
native to some following verb, or be governed by any word going before, then 
this rule does not take place ; the ablative absolute is never used, unless when 
different persons or things are spoken of; as, Milites, hostibus victis, redierunt 
The soldiers, having conquered the enemy, returned. Hostibus victis, may be 
rendered in English several different ways, according to the meaning of the 
sentence with which it is joined ; thus, 1. The enemy conquered, or being con- 



188 ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 

quered : 2. When or after the enemy is or was conquered : 3. By conquering the 
enemy : 4. Upon the defeat of the enemy, &c. 

Obs. 2. The perfect participles of deponent verbs are not 
used in the ablative absolute ; as, Cicero locutus hcec consedit, 
never his locutis. The participles of common verbs may 
either agree in case with the substantive before them, like 
the participles of deponent verbs, or may be put in the abla- 
tive absolute, like the participles of passive verbs ; as, Romani 
adepti libertatem floruerunt ; or Romani) libertate adepta,fio* 
ruerunt. But as the participles of common verbs are seldom 
taken in a passive sense, we therefore rarely find them used 
in the ablative absolute. 

Obs. 3. The participle existente or existentibus, is frequent- 
ly understood ; as, Ccesare duce, scil. existente. His consuli* 
bus, scil. existentibus. Invita Minerva, sc. existente, against the 
grain ; Crassa Minerva, without learning, Hor. Magistra ac 
duce natura ; vivis fratribus ; te hortatore ; Ccesare impuh 
sore, &c. Sometimes the substantive must be supplied ; as, 
Nondum comperto, quam regionem hostes petissent, i. e. cum 
nondum compertum esset,IAv. Turn demumpalam facto, sc. 
negotio, Id. Excepto quod non simul esses, ccetera Icetus, Hor. 
Parto quod avebas, Id. In such examples negotio must be 
understood, or the rest of the sentence considered as the sub- 
stantive, which, perhaps, is more proper. Thus we find a verb 
supply the place of a substantive ; as, Yale dicto, having said 
farewell, Ovid. 

Obs. 4. We sometimes find a substantive plural joined with 
a participle singular ; as, Nobis presente, Plaut. Absente no- 
bis, Ter. We also find the ablative absolute, when it refers 
to the same person with the nominative to the verb ; as, me 
duce ad liunc voti fiinem, me milite, veni. Ovid, Amor. ii. 12. 
12. Lcetos fecit se consule fastos, Lucan, v. 384. Populo 
spectante fieri credam, quicquid me conscio faciam. Senec. de 
Vit. Beat. c. 20. But examples of this construction rarely 
occur. 

Obs. 5. The ablative called absolute is governed by some 
preposition understood; as, a, ab, cum, sub, or in. We find 
the preposition sometimes expressed ; as, Cum diis juvantibus, 
Liv. The nominative likewise seems sometimes to be used 
absolutely ; as, Perniciosa libidine paulisper usus, infirmitas 
naturae accusatur, Sail. Jug. 1. 

Obs. 6. The ablative absolute may be rendered several dif- 
ferent ways ; thus, Superbo regnante, is the same with cum, 
dum, or quando Superbus regnabaU Opere peracto, is the 



ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE. 189 

same with Post opus peractum, or Cupi opus est peractum. 
The present participle, when used in the ablative absolute, 
commonly ends in e. 

Obs. 7. When a substantive is joined with a participle in 
English independently of the rest of the sentence, it is ex- 
pressed in the nominative ; as, lllo descendente, He descend- 
ing. But this manner of speech is seldom used except in 
poetry. 



(190) 



APPENDIX TO SYNTAX. 

I. Various Signification and Construction of 
Verbs. 

[The Verbs are here placed in the same order as in Etymology.] 
FIRST CONJUGATION. 



ASPIRARE ad gloriam & laudem, 
to aim at ; in curiam, to desire to be ad- 
mitted, Cic. ; equis Achillis, to wish for ; 
labori ejus, to favor ; amorem dictis, sc. 
ei, to infuse, Virg. 

Desperare sibi de se ; salutem, sa- 
luti, de salute, to despair of 

LEGARE aliquem ad alium, to send 
as an ambassador; aliquem sibi, to 
make his lieutenant ; pecuniam alicui, 
i. e. testamento relinquere. N. B. Pub- 
lice legantur homines ; qui inde legali 
dicuntur: privatim allegantur ; uhde 



Delegare aes alienum fratri, to leave 
him to pay ; laborem alteri, to lay upon ; 
aliquid ad aliquem, i. e. in eum trans- 
feree, Cic. 

LEVARE metum ejus & ei, eum 
metu, to ease. 

MUTARE locum, solum, to be ban- 
ished; aliquid aliqua re; bellum pro 
pace, to exchange ; vestem, i. e. sordi- 
dam togam induere, Liv. vestem cum 
aliquo, Ter. fidem, to break. 

OBNUNCI ARE comitiis vel concil io, 
i. e. comitia auspiciis imped ire, to hin- 
der, by telling bad omens, and repeating 
these words, alio die ; Consuli v. ma- 
gistrate, i. e. prohibere ne eum populo 
agat, Cic. 

Pronunciare pecuniam pro reo, to 
promise ; aliquid edicto, to order ; sen- 
tentias, to sum up the opinions of the 
senators, Cic. 

Renunciare aliquid, de re, alicui, 
ad aliquem, to tell; consulem, to de- 
clare, to name; vitae amicitiam ei, to 
give up ; muneri, hospitio, to refuse; 
repudium, to divorce. 

OCCUPARE aliquem, to seize; se 
in aliquo negotio, to be employed ; se ad 
negotium, Plaut. pecuniam alicui v. 
apud aliquem grandi fcenore, to give at 
interest, Cic. occupat facere bellum, 



transire in agrum hostium, begins first, 
anticipates, Liv. 

Pr^eoccupare saltum, portas Cici- 
lise, to seize beforehand^ Nep. 

PR^EJUDICARE aliquem, to con- 
demn one from the precedent of a for- 
mer sentence or trial, Cic. 

ROGARE aliquem id, & de ea re ; 
id ab eo ; salutem, & pro salute, Cic. 
legem, to propose ; hence, uti rogas di- 
cere, to pass it; militem Sacramento, 
to administer the military oath ; Roget 
quis ? if any one should ask. Comitia 
rogandis consulibus, for electing, Liv. 

Abrogare legem, seldom legi, to dis* 
annul a law, to repeal, or to change in 
part; multam, to take off a fine; impe- 
rium ei, to take from. 

Arrogare id sibi, to claim. 

Derogare aliquid legi v. de lege, to 
repeal or take away some clause of a 
law; lex derogatur, Cic. fidem ei, v. de 
fide ejus, to hurt one's credit ; ex eequi- 
tate; sibi, alicui, to derogate or take 
from. 

Erogare pecuniam in classem, in 
vestes, to lay out money on. 

Irrogare multam ei, to impose. 

Obrogare legi, to enact a new law 
contrary to an old. 

Prorogare imperium, provinciam 
aliGui, to prolong; diem ei ad sol yen- 
dum, to put off. 

Subrogare aliquem in locum alte* 
rius, to substitute; legi, to add a new 
clause, or to put one in place of another. 

SPECTARE orientem, ad orientem, 
to look towards ; aliquem ex censu, ani- 
mum alicujus ex suo, to judge of. 

SUPERARE hostes, to overcome; 
monies, to pass ; superat pars ccepti, sc. 
operis, remains; Captae superavimus 
urbi, survived, Virg. 

Temperare iras, ventos, to mode* 
rate ; orbem, to rule ; mini sibi, to re* 



VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 191 



Strain, to forbear ; alicui, to spare ; cae- 
dibus, a iacrymis, to abstain from. 

VACARE cura, culpa, morbo, mu- 
nere militiae, &c. a labore, to be free 
from ; anirro, sc. in, to be at ease ; phi- 
losophiae, in v. ad rem, to apply to ; va- 
cat locus, is empty ; si vacas, v. vacat 
tibi, if you are at leisure. 

VINDICARE mortem ejus, to re- 
venge ; ab interitu, exercitum fame, to 
free ; id sibi, & ad se, to claim ; liber- 
tatem ejus, to defend ; se in libertatem, 
to set at liberty. 

DARE animam, to die; animos, to 
encourage; manus, to yield; manum 
ei, to shake hands, Plaut. ; jura, to pre- 
scribe laws ; literas alicui ad aliquem, 
to give one a letter to carry to another ; 
terga, fugam, v. se in fugam, in pedes, 
to fly ; hostes, in fugam, to put to flight; 
operam, to endeavor; operam philoso- 
phise, Uteris, palaestrae, to apply to ; ope- 
ram honoribus, to seek, Nep. veniam ei, 
to grant his request, Ter. gemitus, lac- 

Sfmas, amplexus, cantus, ruinam, fi- 
em, jusjurandum, &c. to groan, weep, 
embrace, sing, fall, &c. cognitores ho- 
nestos, to give good vouchers for one's 
character, Cic. aliquid mutuum, v. 
utendum, to lend ; pecuniam foenori, & 
collocare, to place at interest ; se alicui 
ad docendum, Cic. multum suo inge- 
nio, to think much of; se ad aliquid, to 
aprply to; se auctoritati senatus, to 
yield ; fabulam, scripta foras, to pub- 
lish, Cic. effectum, to perform ; seha- 
tum, to give a hearing of the senate ; ac- 
tionem, to grant leave to prosecute; 
praecipitem, to tumble headlong ; aliquid 
paternum, to act like one's father ; lec- 
tos faciendos, to bespeak, Ter. litem se- 
cundum aliquem, to determine a lam- 
suit in favor of one ; aliquem exitio, 
morti, neci, letho, rarely lethum alicui, 
to kill; aliquid alicui dono, v. muneri, 
to make a present ; crimini, vitio, iaudi, 
to accuse, blame, praise ; pcenas, to suf- 
fer ; nomen militiae, v. in militiam, to 
list one's-self to be a soldier ; se alicui, 
to be familiar with, Ter. Da te mihi ho- 
die, be directed by me, Id. aures, to lis- 
ten; oblivioni, to forget; civitatem ei, 
to make one free of the city ; dicta, to 
speak; verba alicui, to impose on, to 
cheat ; se in viam, to enter on a journey ; 
viam ei, to give place ; jus gratiae, to 
sacrifice justice to interest ; se turpiter, 
to make a shabby appearance ; fundum 
vel domum alicui, mancipio, to convey 
the property of, to warrant the title to ; 
Vitaque mancipio nulli datur, omnibus 
usu, Lucr. servos in quaestionem, to 



give up slaves to be tortured ; primas* 
secundas, &c. (sc. partes) actioni, to as- 
cribe every tiling to delivery, Cic. Dat 
ei bibere, Ter. comas diffundere ven- 
tis, to let them flow loose, Virg. Da mihi 
v. nobis, tell us, Cic. Ut res dant se, as 
matters go ; solertem dabo, I'll warrant 
him expert, Ter. 

Satisdare judicatum solvi, to give 
security that what the judge has deter- 
mined shall be paid, Cic. 

STARE contra aliquem; ab, cum, v. 
pro aliquo, to side with, to be of the 
same party ; judicio ejus, to follow; in 
sententia,- pacto, conditionibus, con- 
ventis, to stand to, to make good an 
agreement ; re judicata, to keep to what 
has been determined ; stare, v. constare 
animo, to be in his senses ; Non stat par 
me quo minus pecunia solvatur, It is 
not owing to me that, $c. multorum 
sanguine ea Taenis victoria stetit, cost, 
Liv. Mihi stat alere morbum desinere, 
lam resolved, Nep. 

Adstare mensae, to stand by; ad 
mensam, in conspectu. 

Constare ex multis rebus, animo et 
corpore, to consist of; secum, to be con- 
sistent with, Cic. liber constitit v. stetit 
mihi duobus assibus, cost me ; non con- 
stat ei color, his color comes and [roes ; 
auri ratio constat, the sum is right.'Con- 
stat impers. It is evident, certain, or 
agreed on ; mihi, inter omnes, de hac 
re. 

Extare aquis, to be above, Ovid, ad 
memoriam posteritatis, to remain, Cic. 
sepulchra extant, Liv. 

Instare victis, to press on the van- 
quished ; rectam viam, to be in the right 
way ; currum Marti, to make speedily, 
Virg. instat factum, insists that it was 
done, Ter. 

Obstare ei, to hinder. 

Pr^estare multa, to perfor m ; alicui, 
v. aliquem virtute, to excel ; silentium 
ei, to give; auxilium, to grant, Juv. im- 
pensas, to defray ; iter tutem, to pro- 
cure; se incolumem, to preserve; se vi- 
rum, i. e. praebere, exhibere ; amorem, 
v. benevolentiam alicui, to show ; cul- 
pam, v. damnum, i. e. in se transferre, 
to take on one's-self; praestabo de me 
eum facturum, I will be answerable. In 
iis rebus repetendis, quae mancipi sunt, 
is periculum judicii praestare debet, 
qui se nexu obligavit, in recovering, or 
in an action to recover those things 
which are transferable, the seller ought 
to take upon himself the hazard of a 
trial, Cic. N. B. Those things were 
called, Res mancipi, {contracted for 



192 VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 

mancipii, i. e. quas emptor manu cape- assist ; Libri prostant venales, the 

ret,)the property of which might be trans- books are exposed to sale, 

f erred from one Roman citizen to ano- ACCUBARE alicui in convivio, to 

ther ; as houses, lands, slaves, &c. recline near ; apud aliquem. lncubare 

Praestat impers. i. e. it is better; ovis & ova, to sit upon ; stratis & super 

Praesto esse alicui, adv. to be present, to strata. 

SECOND CONJUGATION. 



HABERE spem, febrim, finem, bo- 
num exitum, tempus, consuetudinem, 
voluntatera nocendi, opus in manibus, 
v. inter manus, to have ; gratiam & gra- 
tum, to have a grateful sense of a favor; 
judicium, to hold a trial; honorem ei, 
to honor ; in oculis, to be fond of, Ter. 
jfidem alicui, to trust or believe ; curam 
de v. pro eo; rationem alicujus, to 
pay regard to, to allow one to stand can- 
didate for an office ; rationem, v. rem 
cum aliquo, to have business with ; satis, 
to be satisfied ; orationem, concionem 
ad populum, to make a speech ; aliquem 
odio, in odium, to hate ; ludibrio, to 
mock ; religioni, to have a scruple about 
it: So, habere aliquid quaestui, honori, 
prasdae, voluptati, &c. sc. sibi ; se bene 
v. graviter, to be well or ill ; se parce et 
duriter, to live, Ter. aliquid compertum 
cognitum, perspectum, exploratum, 
certum v. procerto, to know for certain ; 
aliquem contemptui, despicatui, -nm, v. 
in despicatum, to despise; excusatum, 
to excuse; susque deque, to scorn, to 
slight ; Ut res se ha bet, stands, is ; re- 
bus ita se habentibus, in this state of 
affairs; Haec habeo, v. habui dicere de, 
&c. Non habeo necesse scribere, quid 
«im facturus, Cic. Habe tibi tuas res, 
a form of divorce. 

Adhibere diligentiam, celeritatem, 
vim, severitatem in aliquem, to use; in 
convivium v. consilium, to admit ; re- 
medium vulneri, curationem morbo, to 
apply; vinum cegrotis, to give; aures 
versibus, to hear with taste ; cultum & 
preces diis, to offer, Cic. Exhibere mo- 
lestiam alicui, to cause trouble. 

JUBERE legem, to vote for, to pass ; 
regem, to choose; aliquem salvere, to 
wish one health ; esse bono animo, &c. 
Uxorem suas res sibi habere jussit, di- 
vorced, Cic. 

DOCEO te hanc rem, & de hac re 
Doctus, adj. utriusque linguae ; Latinis 
<fc Graecis uteris; Latine ; & Graece ; ad 
militiam. 

MISCERE aliquid alicui, cum ali- 
quo, ad aliquid; vinum aqua, Plin. 
cuncta sanguine, Tacit, sacra profanis, 
Hor. humana divinis, Liv. 

VIDERE rem v. de re ; sibi, de ist- 
hoc, to take care of, Ter. plus, to be 



more wise, Cic. De hoc tu videris, 
consider, be answerable for, Cic. Videor 
videre, methinks I see ; visus sum au- 
dire, methought I heard ; mini visus est 
dicere, he seemed ; Quid tibi videtur ? 
What think you? Si tibi videtur, if you 
please ; videtur fecisse, guilty, &c. 

In videre honorem ei, v. honori ejus ; 
ei, vel eum, to envy. 

Pro videre & prospicere id, to fore- 
see ; ei, to provide for ; in posterura ; 
rei frumentariae, rem v. de re. 

SEDERE ad dextram ejus; in equo, 
to ride; toga bene sedet, Jits; Sedet 
hoc animo, is fixed, Virg. 

Assidere ei : Adherbalem, to sit by, 
Sail. Assidet insano, is near or like to, 
Hor. 

Dissidere, cum aliquo, to disagree. 
. Insidere equo, & in equo, to sit 
upon ; locum, Liv. in animo, memoria, 
to be fixed. 

Pr.esidere urbi, imperio, to com- 
mand, Cic. exercitum, Italian), Tacit. 

Supersedere labore, litibus; pug- 
nas, loqui, to forbear, to give over. 

PENDERE promissis, ab v. ex ali- 
quo, to depend ; de, ex, ab & in arbore ; 
Opera pendent interrupta, Virg. 

Impendet malum nobis, nos, v. in 
nos, threatens. 

SPONDERE & despondere filiam 
alicui, to betroth. 

Despondere domum alicujus sibij to 
be sure of, Cic. animo & -is, to promise, 
to hope ; animum & -os, to despair, Liv. 

Respondere ei, Uteris ejus, his, ad 
haec, ad nomen, to answer ; votis ejus, 
to satisfy his wishes; ad spem. 

SUADERE ei pacem, v. de pace; 
legem, to speak in favor of. 

DOLERE causam ejus; de, ab, ex, 
in, pro, re ; dolet mihi cor, v. hoc dolet 
cordi meo ; caput dolet a sole. 

VALERE gratia apud aliquem, to be 
in favor with one ; lex valet, is in force ; 
quid verbum valeat, non video, signi- 
fies; valet decern talenta, or oftener 
talentis, is worth ; vale vel valeas, 
farewell ; ironically, away with you. 

EMINERE aliqua re, vel in aliqua 
re, inter omnes; super caetera, Liv. su- 
per utrumque, Hor. to be eminent, to 
excel; ex aqua, v. aquam, super unda*, 



VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 193 



to be above. Imtninere alicui, to hang 
over, to threaten ; in occasionem, exitio 
alicujus, to seek, to watch for. 

TENERE promissum ; se domi, op- 
pido, castris, sc. in, to keep ; modum, 
ordinem, to observe ; rem, dicta, lecti- 
onem, to understand, to remember ; lin- 
guam, but not suam, silentium, se in si- 
lentio, to be silent; ora, to keep the coun- 
tenance fixed ; secundum locum, impe- 
rii, to hold, Nep. jura civium, to enjoy, 
Cic. causam, to gain ; mare, to be in the 
open sea, to hold, to be master of; ter- 
rain, portum, metam, montes, to reach ; 
risum lacrymas, to restrain ; se ab ac- 
cusando, quin accuset, Cic. Ventus 
tenet, blows; teneri legibus, jurejuran- 
do, &c. to be bound by; leges tenent 
eum, bind; teneri in manifesto furto, 
to be seized. ; tenet fama, prevails. 

Abstinere maledictis, v. a, to ab- 
stain; publico, to live retired, Tacit, 
animum a scelere, aegrum a cibo, to 
keep from ; jus belli ab aliquo, not to 
treat rigorously, Liv. Id. ad me, ad re- 
ligionem, &c. pertinet, concerns me; 
crimen ad te pertinet, Cic. But it is 
not proper to say, Liber ad me, ad fra- 
trem pertinet, for mei fratris est, be- 
longs to ; venae ad vel in omnes corpo- 
ris partes pertinet, reach. 

Sustixere personam judicis, nomen 
consulates, to bear the character ; assen- 
sionem, v. se ab assensu, to withhold as- 
sent ; rem in noctem, to defer. 

MANERE apud aliquem; in cas- 
tris ; ad urbem ; in urbe ; proposito, 
sententia, in sententia, statu suo, &c. 
adventum hostium, to expect, Liv. pro- 
missis, to stand to, to keep, Virg. Omnes 
una manet nox, awaits, Horat. Manent 



ingenia senibus, modo permaneat stu- 
dium & industria, Cic. Munera vobis 
certa manent, Virg. 

MERERE tandem; bene, male de 
aliquo; stipendia, equo, pedibus, to 
serve as a soldier; fustuarium, to be 
beaten to death. 

ELERERE lateri ; tergis, v. in terga 
hostium, Liv. curru, Virg. alicui in 
visceribus, Cic. Haeret mihi aqua, lam 
in doubt ; Vide, ne haereas, lest you be 
at a loss, Cic. - 

Adhjlrere & adhaerescere justitiae , 
ad turrim ; in me. Inhaerere rei, & irr 
re. 

MOVERE castra, to decamp ; bella, 
to raise ; aliquem tribu, to remove a 
Roman citizen from a more honorable 
to a less honorable tribe; e senatu, to 
degrade a senator; risum vel jocum, 
alicui, to cause laughter; stomachum 
ei, to trouble, Cic. 

FAVERE ore, vel Unguis, sc. mihi, 
attend in silence, or abstain from words 
of a bad omen. 

Cavere aliquid, aliquem, vel ab ali- 
quo, to guard against, to avoid ; alicui, 
to provide for, to advise as a lawyer 
does his client; aliquid alicui, Cic. sibi 
ab aliquo vel per aliquem de re aliqua, 
to get security on ; mihi praedibus & 
chirographo cautum est, I have got se- 
curity by bail and bond; veteranis cau- 
tum esse volumus, Cic. Cave facias, 
sc. ne, see you don't do it ; mihi caven- 
dum, vel mea cautio est, I must take 
care. 

CONNIVERE ad fulgura, Suet, to 
wink ; in hominum sceleribus, to take 
no notice of, Cic. 



THIRD CONJUGATION. 
Verbs in 10. 

FACERE initium, finem, pausarn, ire, icere, ferire, percutere, jungere, 

iinem vitae ; pacem, amicitiam ; testa- sancire, firmare, &c. to make a league ; 

mentum, nomen, fossam ; pontem in moram alicui, to delay ; verba, to 

flumine, in Tiberim, to make ; divorti- speak; audientiam sibi, Cic. negotium, 

um cum uxore, Cic. bellum regi, Nep. et facessere, to trouble; aliquid missum, 

se hilarem, to show, Ter. se divitem, to pass over ; aliquem missum, to di& 



miserum, pauperem, to prek'.d, Cic. 
aes alienum, v. contrahere, coi^Oare, to 
contract debt ; animos, to encourage ; 
damnum, detrimentum, jacturam, to 
lose ; naufragium, to suffer ; sumptum, 
to spend ; gratum alicui, to oblige ; gra- 
tiam delicti, to pardon a fault} gra- 



miss or excuse; ad aliquid, rarely ali- 
cui, to befit or useful ; ratum, to ratify ; 
planum, to explain ; palam suis, to 
make known, Nep. stipendium pedibus, 
v. equo, & merere, to serve in the army ; 
sacra, sacrificium, v. rem divinam, to 
sacrifice; reum, to impeach; fabulam, 



tiam legis, to dispense with ; justa vel carmen, versus, &c. to write a 

ftmua alicui, to perform one's funeral fyc. copiam consilii ei, to offer advice ; 

rites ; rem, to make an estate ; pecuni- copiam vel potestatem dicendi legalis, 

am, divitias ex metallis; feed us, v. in- to grant leave; fidem, to procure or 

R 



194 VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 



give credit; periculum, to make trial; 
potestatem sui, to expose himself, Nep. 
aliquem loquentem, v. loqui, to suppose 
or represent, Cic. piraticam, sc. rem, 
to be a pirate; argentariam, medici- 
nam, mercaturam, &c. to be a usurer, 
a physician, fyc. versuram, to contract 
a new debt, to discharge an old one, to 
borrow money at great interest, Cic. 
cum v. ab aliquo, to side with, contra v. 
adversus, to oppose ; nomen v. nomina, 
to borrow money ; and also, to settle ac- 
counts, i. e. rationes acceptarum, sc. 
pecunianim & expensarum inter se 
conferre ; nomen in litura, to write it 
where something was before, Cic. pe- 
dem, v. pedes, to trim the sails, Virg. 
Fac ita esse, suppose it is so; obvius 
fieri, alicui, to meet ; ne longum, v. lon- 
ga faciam, ut breve faciam, not to be 
tedious ; equus non facit, will not move, 
Cic. Fac velle, sc. me, suppose me to 
be willing, Virg. ^En. iv. 540. 

Afficere aliquem laude, honore, 
praemio, & ignominia, poena, morte, 
leto, &c. to praise, honor, tyc. to dis- 
grace, punish, fyc. ArTectus aetate, mor- 
bo, weakened. 

Conficere bellum, to finish ; ora- 
tiones, to compose, Nep. cibum, to 
chew; argentum, to raise, to get; also 
to spend, Cic. cum aliquo de re, to con- 
clude a bargain ; exercitus hostium, to 
destroy; alterum Curiatium, to kill, 
Liv. Qui stipendiis confectis erant, i. e. 
emeriti, had served out their time, Cic. 

Deficere animo, to faint ; ab aliquo, 
to revolt ; tempus deficit mihi vel me, 
fails ; Defici viribus, ratione, &c. to be 
deprived of 

Inficere se vitro, to stain ; Infectus, 
part, stained; infectus, adj. not done. 
Inficior, -atus, -ari, to deny. 

Officere alicui, to hinder or hurt ; 
Diogene apricanti, to stand betwixt him 
and the sun ; auribus, visui, to stop or 
obstruct; Umbra terrae soli officiens 
noctem efficit, Cic. 

Pr^eficere aliquem exercitui, to set 
over. Proficere alicui, to profit, to do 
good ; in philosophia, & progressus fa- 
cere, to make progress. 

Reficere muros, templa, aedes, rates, 
res, to repair ; animum, vires, saucios, 
se, jumenta, to refresh, to recover. 

Sufficere laborious, ictibus, to be 
able to bear ; arma v. vires alicui, to af- 
ford ; Valerius in locum Collatini suf- 
fectus est, was substituted, Liv. Filius 
patri sufFectus, Tacit. Oculos sufTecti 
sanguine & igne, sc. secundum* having 
their eyes red and inflamed, Virg. 

Satjsfacere alicui, in v. de aliqua 



re, to satisfy ; fidei, promisso, to per- 
form. 

JACERE aliquem in praeceps ; con- 
tumelias in eum, to throw ; fund amen- 
ta, & ponere, to lay± talos, to play at 
dice ; anchoram, to cast. 

Adjicere, to add: oculos alicui rei, 
to covet ; animum studiis, to apply ; sa~ 
cerdotibus creandis, Liv. 

Conjicere se in pedes, v. fugam, to 
fly ; caetera, to conjecture. 

Injicere manus ei, to lay on ; spera, 
ardorem, suspicionem, pavorem, alicui, 
to inspire ; admirationem sui cuivis 
ipso aspectu, Nep. 

Objicere se hostibus, in v. ad omnes 
casus, to oppose or expose ; crimen ei, 
to lay to one's charge. 

Rejicere tela jn hostes, to throw 
back; judices, mala, to reject; rem ad 
senatum, Romam, to refer ; rem ad 
Id us Febr. to delay, Cic 

Sub jicere, ova gallinse, to set a hen ; 
se imperio alicujus, to submit; testa- 
menta, to forge; testes, to suborn; 
partes v. species generibus, ex quibus 
emanant, to put or class under ; afiquid 
ei, to suggest; libellum ei, i. e. in ma- 
nus dare ; odio civium, to expose ; bo- 
na Pompeii v. for tunas hastae vel voci 
& sub voce praeconis, to expose to pub- 
lic sale, Cic. sub hasta venire, to be 
sold, Liv. 

Trajicere, copias, v. exercitum, flu- 
vium, Hellespontum, vel trans fluvium, 
to transport ; Marius cum parva navi- 
culain Africam trajectus est, passed or 
sailed over. Trajectus ferro, pierced. 

CAPERE conjecturam, consilium, 
dolorem, fugam, specimen, spem, se- 
dem, &c. to guess, consult, grieve, fly, 
essay, hope, sit, fyc. augurium, v. auspi- 
cium, & agere, to take an omen ; exem- 
plum de aliquo; locum castris; ter- 
rain, to alight ; insulam, summa, sc 
loca, to reach ; spolia ex nobilitate, to 
gain, Sail, de republica nihil praeter 
gloriam, Nep. magistratum, to receive 
or enjoy ; virginem Vestalem, to choose; 
amenliam, spiritus, superbiam alicujus, 
to bear, to contain ; aliquem, consilio, 
perfidia, to catdi; nee te Troja capit, 
Virg. iEdes vix nos capiunt, the house 
hardly contains us. Altero oculo capi- 
tur, blind of one eye ; capitur locis, he 
is delighted vnth, Virg. 

Accipere pecuniam, vulnus, cla- 
dem, injuriam ab aliquo, to receive; 
Orbis terrarum divitias accipere nolo 
pro patriae caritate, Nep. binas h-teras 
eodem exemplo, two copies of the same 
letter, Cic. clamorem de Socrato, to 
hear ; id in bonam partem, to take in 



VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 199 



good part, to understand in a good 
sense; omnia ad contumeliam, aliter, 
aliorsum, ac, atque, Ter. rudem v. 
rude donari, to be discharged as a gladi- 
ator ; aliquem bene, v. male, to treat: 
eura male acceptum in Midiam hiema- 
tum coegit redire, roughly handled, 
Nep. rogationem, to approve the bill; 
nomen, i. e. ad pretend um admittere, 
to allow to stand candidate; omen, to 
esteem good; satisfactionem, v. exeu- 
sationem, Caes. Acceptus plebi, apud 
plebem, popular. 

Concipere verba juramenti, to pre- 
scribe the form of an oath ; conceptis 
verbis jurare ; inimicitas cum aliquo, 
to bear enmity to one ; aquam, to gather, 
to form the head of an aqueduct, Fron- 
tinus. 

Excipere eum hospitio, to entertain; 
fugientes, to catch ; extremum spiritum 
cognatorum ; sanguinem patera, to 
keep or gather; notis, & scribere, to 
write in short-hand ; motus futuros, to 
perceive ; Hos homines excipio, I ex- 
cept; virtutem excipit immortalitas ; 
turbulentior annus excepit, succeeded ; 
sic excepit regia Juno, replied, Virg. 

Incipere, occipere, tobegin. Perci- 
pere fructus, to reap. 

PrtECIPere futura, to foresee ; gau- 
dia, spem victoriae, to anticipate ; peeu- 
niam mutuam, to take before the time, 
Caes. laC, to dry up, Virg. alicui id, v. 
de ea re, to order ; artem ei, to teach. 

Recipejele aliquid, to receive ; urbem, 
to recover; eum fectis, to entertain ; se 
v. pedem, to retreat ; se domum, to re- 
turn ; se, mentem, animum, to come 
to one's-self again, to recover spirits ; in 
se, to take charge ; alicui, to promise ; 
se ad fugem, to amend; senem sessum, 
to give a seat to, Cic. 

RAPERE vel trahere in pejorem 
partem, to take a thing in the worst 
sense.; in jus, to bring before a judge; 
partes inter se, to share, Liv. Sub di- 
vum, to reveal, Horat. 
UO. 

EXUERE vestes sibi, se vestibus,- 
jugum sibi, se jugo, to cast off; fidem, 
sacramentura, to break; mentem, to 
change, Virg. hostem castris, to beat 
from. 

RUERE ad interitum, in ferrum; 
CiEteros, Ter. spumas, to drive or toss, 
Virg. 

LUERE poenas capitis, to suffer ; 33s 
alienum, to pay, Curt, culpam suam 
vel alterius, morte, sanguine, to expiate, 
to atone, or suffer for. 

Fluere amicitias remissione usus, to 
drop gradually, Cic. 



STATUERE stipendium iis de pub- 
lico, to appoint; exemplum in homi- 
nem, vel -ne, to make one a public ex- 
ample; aliquem capite in terram, to 
set or pla,ce, Ter. 

Constituere coloniam, to settle; 
agmen paulisper, to make, to stop or 
halt, Sail, in digitis, to count on one's 
fingers, Cic. urbem, to build, Ovid. Is 
hodie venturum ad me constituit do- 
mum, appointed, resolved, Ter. Si utili- 
tas amicitiam constituit, toilet eadem, 
makes, constitutes, Cic. Corpus bene 
constitutem, a good constitution, Id. 

Destituere aliquem. to forsake; 
spem, to deceive ; propositum, to give 
over, Ovid, deos pacta mercede, to de- 
fraud, Hor. 

Instituere aliquem secundum has- 
redem filio, to appoint, Cic. collegium 
fabrorum, sacra, to institute, to found, 
Plin. aliquem doctrina Graecis Uteris, 
to instruct ; naves, to build, Caes. ser- 
monem, to enter upon, Id. animum 
ae cogitandum, to settle; antequam 
pro Murcena dicere instituo, I begin, 
Cic. 

Pr^estituere petitori, qua actione 
ilium uti oporteat, to prescribe to the 
prosecutor, what form of process ike 
should use, Cic. tempus ei, to deter- 
mine. 

Restituere exules; virginem suis, 
to restore ; oppida vicosque, to repair ; 
aciem inclinatum, to rally ; praelium, to 
renew, Liv. 

Substituere aliquem in locum ejus, 
pro altero, to substitute or put in the 
place of, Cic. 

STRUERE epulas, to prepare ; insi- 
dias, mendacium, to contrive; odium, 
crimen alicui, vel in aliquem, to raise 
against. 

BO. 

SCRIBERE sua manu, bene, veloci- 
ter, epistolam alicui, v. au* aliquem; 
bellum, v. de bello ; milites, to enlist ; 
supplementum militibus, to recruit 
them ; haeredem, to make one his heir ; 
dicam ei, to raise an action against one ; 
nummos, to give a bill of exchange ; de 
rebus suis scribi cupivit, Cic. Decem- 
vir legibus scribendis, Liv. 

Ascribere aliquem civitati, in civi- 
tatem, v. -e, to make free. 

Describere aliquem, to describe and 
not to name ; partes Italiae, pecuniam, 
populum ordinibus, to distribute, to di- 
vide; vectigal civitatibus, i. e impe- 
rare ; jura, i. e. dare v. constituere ; 
censores binos in singulas civitates, i. 
e. facere, Cic. 

Inscribere literas alicui, to correct a. 



196 VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 



letter ; librum, to entitle or name ; aedes 
mercede, to put a ticket on one's house 
to let, Ter. 

Proscribere bona alicujus, aedes 
suas, auctionem, to publish to be sold, to 
set to sale ; aliquem, to banish, to outlaw. 
Rescribere alicujus Uteris v. ad lite- 
ras, alicui ad aliquid, to write an an- 
swer; pecuniam, to pay money by bill; 
legionem ad equum, to set foot- soldiers 
on horseback, Ca?s. 

Subscribere exemplum literarum, 
to write below ; causae, to join or take 
part in an accusation ; Caesaris iras, to 
favor. Ovid. 
J CO. 

DICERE aliquid, v. de aliqua re, ex 
aliquo loco, alicui, ad v. apud aliquem ; 
in aliquem, against; ad aliquid, in an- 
swer to ; sententiam, to give an opin- 
ion ; jus, to administer justice, to pro- 
nounce sentence ; mule lam ei, to amerce 
or fine ; diem ei, to appoint a day for 
his trial before the people ; prodicere, to 
put it off; causam, to plead ; testimo- 
nium, to give evidence ; non idem loqui 
est ac dicere, to harangue, Cic. Sacra- 
mento, seldom sacramentura, to take the 
military oath. 

Addicere aliquid ei, to call out at an 
auction, to sell ; servituti, v. in servitu- 
tem, to sentence or adjudge to bondage ; 
bona, to give up the goods of the debtor 
to the creditor ; se alicui, to devote him- 
self to one's service ; aves non addixe- 
runt, v. abdixerunt, the birds did not 
give a favorable omen ; pretio abdictam 
habere fidem, to be corrupt, Cic. 

Condicere operam alicui, to promise 
assistance; coenam alicui, v. ad ccenam, 
to purpose sujjping with one without in~ 
vitation. 

Edicere alicui, to order; delectum, 
to appoint a levy ; prsedam militibus, to 
promise by an edict; justitium, diem 
comitiis, vel comitia consulibus crean- 
dis, to appoint. 

Indicere bellum, justitium, to pro- 
claim war ; legem sibi, to appoint; Cic. 
coetusin domos tribunorum, to summon, 
Liv. indicare, to show; Indictus, an 
adj. not said; causa indicia, v. non cog- 
nita. condemnari, to be condemned witfi- 
out being heard; me indicente,haecnon 
fiunt, not telling, Ter. 

Interdicere alicui, aliquid v. aliqua 
re ; foeminis usum purpura?, to forbid, 
or debar from ; ei aqua & igne, v. 
aquam et ignem, to banish ; male rem 
gerentibus bonis paternis ihterdici so- 
ld, Cic. interdici non poterat socero 
gener, discharged the company of, Nep, 



Pr^edicere alicui aliquid, de aliqua 
re, id in hac re, to foretell, to forewarn. 

DUCERE in carcerem v. vincula, to 
lead; exercitum, to command; spiri- 
tum, animam, vitam, to breathe, to live ; 
soffam, murum, sulcum, to make or 
draw ; bellum, to prolong ; also to car- 
ry on, Virg. aetatem, diem, to spend; 
uxorem, to take a wife ; in jus, to sum- 
mon before a judge ; aliquem, & vul- 
tum alicujus, aere, ex aere, de auro, 
marmore, &c. to make a statue ; genus, 
nomen ab v. ex aliquo, to derive ; om- 
nia pro nihilo, infra se:-id laudi, lau- 
dem, v. in laudem, oftener the first, to 
reckon it a praise to him ; in conscien- 
tiam, to impute to a consciousness of 
guilt ; in gloria, Plin. in crimen, Tacit, 
centesimas, sc. usuras, vel foenus cente- 
simis, to compute interest at one for the 
hundred a month; or at 12 per cent per 
annum; binis centesimis fcenerari, to 
take 24 per cent, per annum, Cic. du- 
cere longas voces in fletum, to draw 
out, Virg. ordines, to be a centurion, 
Liv. ilia, to pant like a broken-winded 
horse, Hor. 

Adducere aliquem in judicium, ar- 
bitrium meum, to bring to a trial ; in 
suspicionem regi, Nep. arcum, to draw 
in; habenas, to straiten the reins. 

Conducere aliquem ex loco, to con- 
vey ; navera, domum, coquos, to hire ; 
columnam faciendam, to engage to 
make at a certain price ; Conducit hoc 
tuae laudi, in v. ad rem, is of advantage. 

Deducere naves, to launch; clas- 
sem in preelium, to bring, Nep. equites, 
to make to alight, Liv. eum domum, to 
accompany, to carry home ; de senten- 
tia, Cic. coloniam,to transplant; lacum, 
to drain. 

Educere gladium e vagina, to draw; 
florem Italiae, to lead out ; copius in 
aciem, Cic. fdium, to educate, oftener 
educare; in astra, to extol, Hor. ccelo, 
Virg. 

Jnducere tenebras clarissimis rebus, 
to bring on, Cic. animum, v. in ani» 
mum, to persuade himself; seuta pelli- 
bus, to cover, Caes. soleas pedibus v. in 
pedes, to put on ; colorem picturee, to 
varnish, Plin. nomina, to cancel or rase, 
to rub out. 

Obducere exercitum, to lead against; 
callum dolori, to blunt it; sepulchrum 
sentibus, to cover. 

Reducere aliquem in memoriam 
alicujus, vel alicui aliquid in memori- 
am, to bring back to one's remembrance ; 
in gratiam cum aliquo, to reconcile; 
Vallis reducta, retired or lorn. 



VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OP VERBS. 




Producere testes, to bring out; fu- 
nus, to attend ; sermonem in noctem, to 
prolong, to continue ; rem in hieraem, 
to defer ; servos vendendos, to bring to 
market. 

Subbucere se a custodibus, to steal 
away ; naves, to draw up on shore; ci- 
bum ei & deducere, to take from ; sum- 
mam, rationes, to reckon, to cast up ac- 
counts. 

PARCERE sibi, labore, to spare, &c. 
a caedibus, to forbear; aurum natis, 
Virg. 

ASSUESCERE rei alicui, v. re ali- 
qua, in v. ad hoc, to be accustomed; 
mentem pluribus & assuefacere, Hor. 
Animis bella, Virg. to accustom. So, 
insuesco rei v~ re ,• insuevit hoc me 
pater, Hor. 

SCISCERE legem, to vote, to decree; 
hence plebiseitum. 

Asciscere regium nomen, to assume ; 
socios sibi, ad societatem sceleris, to as- 
sociate ; ritus peregrinos, to adopt. 

Consciscere mortem v. necem sibi, 
to kill one's-self; fugam sibi, to flee, 
Liv. 

DISCERE aliquid ab aliquo, v. apud 
aliquem, ex aliqua re, or without ex ; 
Dediscere, to forget what he hath learn- 
ed; Ediscere, to get by heart. 

Descendere de palatio, praesidio, 
sedibus ; in forum, curiam, campum ; 
ad accusandum, ad omnia, ad extrema, 
to have recourse to, Cic. 
DO. 

LUDERE alea v. -am, to play at 
dice ; par impar, at even and odd ; ope- 
rand, to lose one's labor. 

Alludere alicui, ad aliquem ; Col- 
ludere el, cum eo ; illudere ei, eum, in 
eum, in eo; id, to mock. 

EVADERE insidias, -iis, vel ex, to 
escape; in muro, to mount; Haecquor- 
sum evadant, nescio, to what they will 
turn out ; Clarus evasit, became. 

CEDERE multa multis de suo jure, 
Cic. Bona creditoribus, to yield, whence 
cessio bonorum; alicui loco, de, a, ex 
loco, v. locum, to give place; vita, e 
vita decedere, to die; foro, to turn 
bankrupt; Haereditas cedit mihi, falls 
to ; Cedit in proverbium, becomes. 

Accedere oppidum, -do, ad v. in op- 
pidum, to approach ; ad conditiones, to 
agree to ; Ciceroni, sententiae, v. ad sen- 
tentiam ejus, to agree with ; ad Cicero- 
nem, to go to ; ad rempublicam, to bear 
the questorship, or the first public office ; 
ad amicitiam Philippi, to gain the 
friendship of, Nep. Ad haec mala hoc 
mihi accedit etiam, added, Ter. Robur 
accessit setati, Cic. Animi necessere 

R 



hosti, Liv. Ad corporis firmitatem plu- 
ra animi bona accesserant, Nep. Acce- 
dit plurimum pretio, hue, eo, accedit 
quod, is added. 

Antecedere alicui rei; aliquem, 
rarely alicui, to excel. 

Con cedere ei aliquid & de aliquo; 
paullum de suo jure ; tempus ad rem, 
to grant; ab oculis, ad dextram, in ex- 
ilium, in hiberna, to retire, to go; fato, 
naturas, vita, to die ; in sententiam ejus, 
to come into one's measures ; in condi- 
tiones, to agree to, Liv. 

Discedere transversum, & latum 
unguem, v. digitum a re, to depart in 
the least. 

Intercedere legi, to give a negative 
against, to oppose a law ; pecuniam pro 
aliquo, to become surety; Intercedit mi- 
hi tecum amicitia vel inter nos, there is, 
&c. 

Succedere ei, in locum ejus, to suc- 
ceed; muro, v. murum; ad urbem; 
sub primam aciem ; in pugnam, to come 
to. 

CADERE alte, ab alto, in terram, to 
fall; causa formula, in judicio, & li- 
tem perdere, to lose one's cause, to be 
cast ; in v. sub sensum, oculos, potesta- 
tem, &c. in morbum, & incidere, Cic. 
Non cadit in virum bonum mentiri, is 
incapable of, Cic. Homini lachrymae. ca' 
dunt, quasi puero, gaudio, Ter. 

Accidere genibus, v. ad genua, to 
fall at ; auribus v . ad aures, to come to ; 
alicui, casu, praster opinionem, to hap- 
pen ; accidit in te istud verbum, ap- 
plies, Ter. 

TENDERE vela, to stretch ; insidias, 
retia, plagas, &c. to lay snares; arcum, 
to bend; iter, cursum, to direct ; ad al- 
tiora, in ccelum, to aim at; extra val- 
lum, sc. tabernaculum, to pitch a tent; 
Manibus tendit divellere nodos, tries, 
Virg. 

Attendo te, Cic. tibi, Plin. de hac 
re, ad hanc rem; to take heed; ani- 
mum ad rem ; res hostium, Sail. 

Contendere nervos, omnibus ner- 
vis, to exert one's-self; aliquid ab ali- ) 
quo, to ask earnestly ; inter se ; amori, 
poet, for cum amore, to strive; causas, 
sc. inter se, to compare, Cic. Aliquid 
ad aliquid, cum aliquo, & alicui. 

Comprehendere naturam rerum, to 
understand ; rem pluribus & luculenti- 
oribus verbis, to eapress ; aliquem hu- 
manitate, amicitia, to gain ; rem fictam, 
to discover^ 

Intendere animum rei, ad v. in rem, 
to apply ; Intendi animo in rem, 
Liv. Vocem, nervos, to exert ; arcum, 
to bend; actionem, v. litem alicui, v. in. 

2 



198 



MOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 



aliquem, also impingere, to raise a law- 
suit against one; telum ei, v. in eum, 
to shoot at ; manum, v. digitura in ali- 
quid, to point at ; uliquo sc. ire, to go 
to ; officia, to overdo, to do more than is 
required, Sail. 

Obtendere velum rei, v. rem velo, 
to cover, to veil. 

PENDERE pecuniam, to pay ; pce- 
nas, to suffer ; id parvi, to value it little. 

Suspendere aliquem arbori, de, in, 
v. ex arbore, to hang ; expectatione, vel 
suspensum detinere, to keep in sus- 
pense ; aedificium, to arch a house ; naso 
adunco, to sneer at, Horat. 

ABDERE se literis, in literas, to 
hide, or shut up one s-self among books; 
se domum, rus, &c. domo, Virg. in sil- 
vas, tenebras, &c. 

Condere urbem, to build; fructus, 
to lay up; in carcerem, to imprison; 
carmen, to compose; lumina, to close, 
Ov. Jura, to establish ; terra, sepulchro, 
in sepulchro, to bury. 

Dedere se alicui, in ditionem alicu- 
jus, ad aliquem, to surrender; Deditus 
praBceptori, & studiis, fond of; vino 
epulisque, engaged in, Nep. dedita 
opera, on purpose. 

Edere, librum, & in lucem, to pub- 
lish ; ovum, to lay ; sonos, cantus, 
risus, gemitus, questus, hinnitum, pug- 
nam, stragem, to sound, zing, &c. mu- 
nus gladiatorium, to exhibit a show of 
gladiators ; nomen, to mention ; foetus, 
to bring forth ; extremum spiritum, to 
die ; exempla cruciatus in aliquem, to 
inflict exemplary torture. 

Obdere pessulum foribus, to bolt the 
door. 

Prodere arcem hostibus, to betray ; 
aliquid posteris, v. memoria3, to hand 
down ; genus ab aliquo, to derive ; fla- 
minem, interregem, to appoint ; aliquot 
dies nuptiis, to put off, Ter. exemplum, 
to give to posterity, Li v. 

Reddere animum, se sibi, to revive; 
animam v. vitam, to die ; Latine, ver- 
bum verbo, to translate ; matrem, i. e. 
referre, to resemble; epistolam alicui, 
to deliver. 

Subdere calcar equo, to spur ; spiri- 
tus alicui, to encourage. 

Credere rem; homini, to believe; 
aliquid alicui, to trust ; pecuniam ei 
per syngrapham, to lend on bond or bill ; 
rumoribus credi non oportet; Itaque 
credo, si, &e. I suppose, Cic. 

FUNDERE aquam, topour out; hos- 
tes, to rout. 

Effundere fruges, copiam orato- 
rum, to produce; aerarium, to spend; 



odium, i. e. dimittere, to drop ; gratiam 
collectam, i. e. perdere; omnia, quae 
tacuerat, to tell. 

GO. 

JUNGERE se cum aliquo, alicui, & 
ad aliquem, dextram dextrae; equos 
currui ; amnem ponte, to make a bridge. 

Adjungere accessionem cedibus, to 
build an addition to one's house ; ani- 
mum ad studia, to apply. 

STRINGERE cultrum, gladium, en- 
sem, to draw ; frondes, to lop off; glan- 
des, baccas, to beat down ; rem, to waste 
one' s fortune, Hor. littus, to touch, to 
brush or graze upon, Virg. 

TANGERE rem acu, to hit the nail 
on the head. 

Attingere Brittaniam navibus, to 
reach ; reges, res summas, to mention, 
Nep. Aliquem cognatione, affinitate, 
to be related /o ; forum, to reach man* 
hood, Cic. Res non te attingit, concerns. 

FINGERE orationem, to polish ; ora- 
torem, to form; se ad arbitrium alte- 
rius, to adapt ; Vultus a mente fingitur, 
lingua fingit vocem, Cic. Sic cuique 
mores fingunt fortunam, Nep. 

FRANGERE nucem, to break; na- 
vem, to suffer shipwreck ; fcedus fidem, 
to violate; sententiam ejus, to refute, 
Cic. hostem, to subdue. 

AGERE, gratias, to give thanks; vi- 
tam, to live; praedas, to plunder; fabu- 
lam, to act a play ; triumphum de ali- 
quo, ex aliqua re, to triumph ; nugas, to 
trifle ; ambages, to beat about the bush ; 
stationem, custodiam urbis, to be on 
guard ; rimas, to chink, to leak, to be 
rent ; causam, to plead ; de re, to speak ; 
radices, to take root ; cuniculos, to un- 
dermine; undam, to raise a steam ; ani- 
mam, to be at the last gasp ; altas res, to 
be inattentive ; festum diem, natalem, 
ferias, &c. to keep, to observe ; actum, v. 
rem actam, to labor in vain ; censum, 
& habere, to make a review of the peo- 
ple, their estates, fyc. forum, to hold a 
court to try causes ; lege in aliquem, & 
cum aliquo, to go to law with one; hence 
actor, a plaintiff; in hereditatem, to 
claim ; cum populo, to treat with, to lay 
before ; decimum agit annum, heis ten 
years old; id agitur, that is the ques- 
tion ; libertas agitur, v. de libertate, is 
at stake ; actum est de libertate, is lost; 
actum est, ilicet, all is over ; actum est 
de pace, was treated about ; cum illo 
bene actum est, he has been lucky, or 
well used ; hoc age, mind what you 
are about; Ci vitas laeta agere, for erat, 
Sail. 

Adigere milites sacramento ad v. in 






VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 199 



jusjurandum, in sua verba, per jusju- 
randum, to force to enlist ; arbitrum, i. 
e. agere v. cogere aliquem ad arbitrum, 
to force to submit to an arbitration, Cic. 

Cogere copias, to bring" together ; ad 
militiam, to force to enlist ; senatum, to 
assemble ; in senatum, sc. minis pigno- 
ribus captis, &c. to force to attend ; ag- 
men, to rally, to bring up ; lac, to cur- 
dle ; jus civile diffusum & dissipatum, 
in certa genera cogere, to digest, to ar- 
range. 

Exigere foras, to drive out, to di- 
vorce; aliquid ab aliquo, to require; 
sarta tecta sc. et, i. e. sarta et tecta, ut 
sint bene reparata, to require that the 
public-works be kept in good reparation, 
Cic. supplicium de aliquo, to inflict; 
sua nomina, to demand, or call in one's 
debt; aevum, vitam, annos, to spend; 
aliquid ad normam, to try or examine ; 
columnam ad perpend iculum, to apply 
the plummet, to see if it be straight ; mon- 
umentum, to finish, Hor. tempus & mo- 
dura, to settle, Virg. coracediam, to dis- 
approve, to hiss off, Ter. 

Redigere aliquid in memoriam ali- 
cujus, to bring back ; pecuniam ex bo- 
nis venditis, to raise money ; hostes sub 
irnperium, to reduce. 

LEGERE oram, littus, to coast along; 
vela, to furl the sails ; halitum, to catch 
one's breath ; milites, to enlist ; aliquem 
in senatum, in Patres, to choose ; sacra, 
to steal, to commit sacrilege, Hor. 
HO. 

TRAHERE obsidionem, bellum, to 
prolong ; purpuras, to spin ; aliquid in 
religionem, to scruple; navem remul- 
co, to tow. 

Detrahere aliquem, to draw down ; 
alicui vel de aliquo, de fama, to detract 
Jrom, to lessen one's fame ; aliquid ali- 
cui, to take by force ; laudem v. de lau- 
dibus: novem partes mulctae, to take 
from the fine, Nep. 

Extrahere diem, to spin out, to 
spend; certamen, bellum, judicium, to 
prolong. 

VEHERE, vehens, in vehens, invec- 
tus curru, quadrigis, &c. riding in a 
chariot; invehi in portum ex alto, to 
enter ; in aliquem, to inveigh against ; 
provehi longiiis, to proceed too far. 
LO. 

CONSULERE rem, v. de re, to con- 
sult about; eura, to ask his advice; ei, 
to consult for his good; de salute sua; 
gravius in aliquem, to pass a severe sen- 
tence against ; in commune, publicum, 
medium, to provide for the common 
good ; verba boni, to take in good part ; 
ego consulor, my advice is asked ; mini 



consulitur, my good is consulted ; mihi 
consultum ac provisum est, for a me, I 
have taken care, Cic. 

APPELLERE classe in Italiam, vel 
classem, to land on ; se aliquo, Ter. ad 
villam nostram navis appelletur, Cic 
animum ad philosophiam, to apply. 

ANTECELLERE ei, rarely eum; 
excellere aliis, super, inter, praeter 
alios aliqua re, v. in re, to excel. 

TOLLERE animos suos, to take cou- 
rage ; animos alicui, to encourage ; ali- 
quem laudibus, & laudes ejus in astra, 
to extol; inducias, to break a truce ; cla- 
mores, to cry ; filium, to educate; de 
vel e medio, to kill. 

MO. 

ADIMERE claves uxori, to divorce ; 
annulum v. equum equiti, to take away 
from a knight the ring or horse given 
him by the public, to degrade. 

Dirimere litem, controversial^ to 
determine. 

Eximere aliquem servitio, noxae e 
vinculis, a culpa, de numero proscrip- 
torum, obsidione, to free; de dolia, to 
draw out; diem dicendo, to waste in 
speaking. 

Interfere se, to kill. 

Rebimere captivos, to ransom ; pe- 
cuaria de censoribus, to take or farm 
the public pastures. 

SUMERE in manus; diem tempus 
ad deliberandum ; exemplum ex, v. de 
eo, to take; poenas supplicium de ali- 
quo, to punish ; pecunias mutuas, to 
borrow; togam virilem, to put on the 
dress of a man ; sibi inimicitias, to get 
ill-will ; operam in re, vel in rem insu- 
mere, to bestow pains; sumo tantum, 
vel hoc mihi, I take this upon me. 

PRE ME RE caseum, to make cheese ; 
vocem, to be silent; dolorem corde, to 
conceal ; vestigia ejus, to follow ; littus, 
to come near ; pollicem, to save a gladi- 
ator ; librum in nonum annum, to delay 
publishing, Hor. 

Exprimere succum, to press out; ri- 
sum alicui; pecuniam ab aliquo, to 
force from; effigiem, to draw to the 
life ; verbum verbo, de verbo e verbo, 
ad verbum, de Grsecis, &c. to translate 
word for word. 

Imprimere aliquid animo, in animo, 
v. in animum, to imprint. 

Reprimere se, & reprendere v. reti- 
nere, to check. 

NO. 

PONE RE spem in homine v. re, & 
habere; castra, to pitch; vitem, to 
plant; vitam, to die; ova, to lay; in- 
sidias alicui ; panem convivis, not 
ante ; personam amici, to lay aside the 



200 VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS* 



character of a friend ; praemia, to pro- 
pose; pocula, to stake or lay; studium, 
tempus, multum operae in aliqua re, to 
employ, to bestow ; aliquid in laude, in 
vitiis, in loco beneficii, to reckon ; fero- 
cia corda, to lay aside ; aliquem in gra- 
tiam v. gratia, i. e. efficere gratiosum 
apud alteriim, Cic ventos, to calm ; ho- 
minem coloribus saxo, to paint, engrave, 
Hor. pecuniam in fcenore, to lay out at 
interest ; tempis, to build, Virg. Venti 
posuere, are hushed, Virg. Pone esse 
victum eum, Ter. Positum sit, suppose, 
grant, Cic. 

Componere -carmen, literas, &c. to 
compose ; lites, to settle ; bellura, to fin- 
ish by treaty ; parva magnis, dicta cum 
factis, to compare; manus manibus, to 
join, Virg. 

Deponere v. ponere togam praetex- 
tam, to lay aside the dress of a boy ; im- 
perium & demittere, to lay down a 
command. 

Exponere rem, to set forth or ex- 
plain; frumentum, to expose to sale, 
Cic. pueros, foetus, to leave to perish, 
Liv. exereitum, sc. in terram, to land. 

Imponere onus alicui v. in aliquem ; 
aliquem in equum, to set upon ; perso- 
nam v. partes duriores ei, to lay a task 
or duty on one ; alicui, to impose on, to 
deceive, Nep. honorem ei, to confer; 
vadimoniiim ei, to force to give bail, 
Nep. manum summam v. extremam 
rei alicui, in aliqua re, to finish; pon- 
tem flumini, to make a bridge, Curt. 
Hoc loco libet interponere, to insert, 
Nep. * 

Opponere se periculis & ad pericu- 
la, to expose; pignori, to pledge; ma- 
num fronti, ante oculos, to put, Ovid. 

Proponere aliquid sibi facere, ex- 
empla ei ad imitandum, to propose, to 
set before; edicta, legem in publicum, 
. i. e. publice legenda effigere ; congia- 
rium, to promise a largess, a gift of 
corn or money. 

Suppqmere ova gallinae, to set ahen ; 
testamentum, v. subjicere, to forge. 

CANERE aliquem, to praise; signa, 
classicum, bellicum, i. e. ad arma con- 
clamare, to sound an alarm, to give the 
signal for battle ; receptui, rarely -um, 
to sound a retreat ; tibia, to play on the 
pipe; ad tibiam, to sing to it; palinodi- 
am, to utter a recantation. 

STERNERE lectos, to spread or 
cover the couches; equos, to harness; 
viam, to pave; aequora, to calm, Virg. 
PO. 

CARPERE agmen, to cut off the 
rear; somnos, quietem,,fo sleep ; viam* 



iter, to go, Virg. opera alterius, to cen- 
sure ; labores, virtutes, to diminish or 
obscure, Hor. 

RUMPERE fidem, fcedus, amicitiam, 
to violate; vocem v. silentium, to speak, 
Virg. 

Erumpere ex tenebris, castris, &c. 
se portis, to break out; stomachum in 
aliquem, to vent passion ; nubem, to 
break, Virg. 

RO. 

QILSRERE bonam, gratiam, sibi, 
tx> seek or gain, Cic. sermonem, to beat 
about for conversation, Ter. rem mer- 
caturis faciendis, to make a fortune by 
merchandise ; ex aliquo, & in aliquem, 
de re aliqua per tormenta, to put to the 
rack : in dominum de servo quaeri no- 
luerunt Romani, Cic. 

Inquirere aliquid, to search after; 
aliquem capitis, v. -te, to accuse or try 
for a capital crime. 

GERERE res, to perform ; negoti- 
um, male, to manage; consulatum, to 
bear, to menage ; se bene vel male, to 
behave ; exereitum, to conduct, Sallust ; 
morem ei, vel morigerari, to humor; 
civ em, se pro cive, personam alicujus, 
to pass for, to bear the character of; 
inimicitias vel simultatem cum aliquo, 
to be at enmity or variance with. 

Ingerere convicia ei, in eum, to in- 
veigh against. 

Suggerere aliquid ei, to suggest, to 
hint ; sumptus his rebus, to supply or 
afford, Horatium Bruto, to choose in 
place of to put after, Liv. 

SERERE crimina in eum, to raise, 
to spread accusations. 

Conserere manus, manu,certamen, 
pugnam cum hostibus, inter se, to en- 
gage. 

Asserere aliquid, to affirm ; aliquem 
manu, ab injuria, in libertatem, to free; 
in servitutem, to reduce ; divinam ma- 
jestatem, to claim. 

TO. 

PETERE aliquid alicui ; id ab eo, 
rarely eum ; in beneficii gratiseque 
loco, Cic, to ask ; urbem Romam, mu- 
rum, montes, to go to, to make for ; ali- 
quem sagitta, lapide, to aim at ; consu- 
latum posnas ab aliquo, repetere, to 
punish. 

Competere animo, to be in one's 
senses ; in eum competit actio, an ac- 
tion lies against law, Cic. 

Repetere res, to demand restitution; 
bona lege, v. prosequi lite, to recover by 
law; castra, oppidum, hue, to return 
to; aliquid memoria, to call to mind; 
alte, to trace from the beginning. Mini; 



VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 201 



nihil suppetit, multa suppetunt, I have; 
si vita suppetet, if life shall remain, 
Cic. 

MTTTERE alicui, v. ad aliquem ; in 
suffragia, to send the people to vote ; au- 
laeura, raappam, to drop the curtain; 
talos, to throw the dice ; senatum, to 
dismiss ; timorem, to lay aside ; in acta, 
to register, to record ; sanguinem, vel 
emittere, to let blood ; noxam, to for- 
give; signa timoris, to show; vocem, 
to utter, to speak; habenas, v. remit- 
tere, to slacken; manu et emittere, 
to free a slave; filium emancipare, 
to free a son from the power of 
his father ; sub jugum, to make to pass 
under the yoke; inferias manibus diis, 
to sacrifice to the infernal gods; rem, v. 
de re, to omit; mitto rem, i" say no- 
thing of fortune, Ter. in possessionem 
bonorum, to give the possession of the 
debtor's effects; misit orare, ut veni- 
rem ; i. e. aliquem ad orandum, Ter. 

Amittere- litem, v. causam: vitam, 
sidem, lumina, aspectum, to lose, Cic. 

Admittere in cubiculum, to admit ; 
equum immiltere, & permittere, to gal- 
lop; delictum in se, to commit a fault ; 
aves non admiserunt, have not given a 
favorable omen, Li v. 

Committere facinus, to commit ; se 
alicui, v. in fidem alicujus, to intrust; 
praelium, to engage ; exercitum pugnae, 
rem in casum ancipitis eventus praelii, 
to risk a battle, Liv. iv. 27. aliquem 
cum aliquo, homines inter se, to set at 
variance, or by the ears; rem eo, to 
bring to that pass ; gladiatores, pugiles 
Graecos cum Latinis, to match or pair ; 
committere, ut, to cause; incommoda 
sua legibus & judiciis, to seek redress 
by law. 

Comfromittere, Candidati compro- 
miserunt, H. S. quingenis in singulos 
apud M. Catonem depositis, petere 
ejus arbitratu, utqui contra fecisset, ab 
eo condemnaretur, made a compromise 
or agreement, &c. 

Dimittere exercitum, to disband; 
uxorem, & repudiare, nuntium v. repu- 
diam ad earn remittere, to divorce. 

Promittere id ei, to promise ; capil- 
lum, barbam, to let grow, Liv, 

Permittere alicui, to allow; divis 
caetera, to leave, Horat. se in sidem v. 
fidei ejus ; vela ventis ; equum in hos- 
tem; rem suffragiis populi, to let the 
people decide; tribunatum vexandis 
consulibus, to give up, to employ, Liv. 

Remittere animum, to ease ; calces, 
tela, to throw back ; ex pecunia,de sup- 
plicio, tributo, &c. to abate; debitum, 
teas alicui, to give up, to forgive ; justi- 



cium, to discontinue ; pugnam, to slack- 
en; remittit explorare, neglects, Sal- 
lust. 

Submittere fasces populo, to lower ; 
seyv. animum, to submit, to humble; 
percussores alicui, to suborn assassins. 

Transmittere in Africam, neut. to 
pass over. 

VERTERE in fugam, to put to flight; 
terga, to fly ; ab imo, to overthrow; so- 
lum, to go into banishment ; id ei vitio, 
v. crimini, & in crimen, to blame; in 
superbiam, to impute; Platonem, Lati- 
ne Graeca, Graeca vel ex Graecis in Lati- 
num, to translate; pollicem, to doom a 
gladiator to death by turning up the 
thumb ; terram, to plow ; crateram, to 
empty, Virg. Stilum, to correct, Horat. 
Salus vel causa in eo vertitur, depends ; 
fort una verterat, Liv. Annus vertens, 
a whole year, Nep. Res bene vertat, 
Di bene vertant, prosper. 

Anlmadvertere id, to observe ; in 
eum verberibus, morte, &c. to punish. 

Advertere agmen urbi, to bring up 
to, Virg. oras, to arrive at. ; aures, men- 
tes, animum, v. animo ad aliquid, rao 
nitis, to attend to ; in aliquem, oftener 
animadvertere, to punish. 

Antevertere ei, to come before ; 
damnationem veneno, to prevent: rem 
rei, to prefer, Plaut. 

Intervertere pecuniam alicujus, 
& aliquem pecunia, to embezzle, to 
cheat; candelabrum, to steal, to pilfer; 
promissum & receptum, sc. Dolobel- 
lae consulatum, intervertit, ad seque 
transtulit, treacherously withheld, Cic. 

Prjevertere, & -ti, dep. ventos cur^ 
su, to outstrip; desiderium plebis, to 
prevent ; metum supplicii morte volun- 
tary, Liv. Aliquid alicui rei, to put be- 
fore, Id. 

SISTERE vadimonium ; se in judi- 
cio, to appear in court at one's trial; 
nee sisti posse,- nor could the state be 
saved, Liv. 

Assistere ei, to stand by ; adfores, 
contra, super eum. 

Consistere in digitos, to stand on 
tiptoe; in anchoris, ad anchoram, to 
ride at anchor ; frigore, to be frozen, 
Ovid. Spes in velis consistebat, de- 
pended on : virtus in actione consistit, 
Cic. 

Insistere jacentibus, to stand upon ; 
vestigiis ejus; viam, v. via; in re ali« 
qua, in rem, v. rei ; in dolos, negotiunij 
Plaut. to insist upon, to urge. 

Obsistere ei, to stop, to oppose. 

Resistere ei, to resist. 

Subsistere, to stand still ; sumptui, 
to bear. 



202 VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 



VO. 
SOLVERE pecuniam ei, to pay; ver- 
sura, to pay a debt by borrowing from 
another, Ter. Fidem, to break a prom- 
ise, or according to others, to perform, 
Ter. And. IV. I. 19. litem aestimatam, 
to pay the fine imposed on him, Nep. 
Votum, to discharge ; obsidionem urbis, 
v. urbem obsidione, to raise a siege;' 
navem e porta, to set sail ; epistolam, 
v. resignare, to break open ; aliquem le- 



gibus, legum vinculis, to free from ; 
solvitur in somnos, Virg. Oratio solu- 
ta, i. e. libera, numeris non astricta & 
devicta, prose; solve metus, dismiss, 
Virg. 

Dissolvere societatem, to break. 

Resolvere vocem, v. ora, to break 
silence, Virg. jura, to violate ; vectigal, 
to take off taxes, Tacit. In pulverem, 
to reduce to. 



FOURTH CONJUGATION. 



AUDIRE aliquem, aliquid ex v. ab 
aliquo, to hear from one; de aliquo, 
about one, also from one, as, saepe hoc 
audivi de patre,/or ex patre, Cic. Au- 
dire bene v. male apud socios, ab om- 
nibus, to be well spoken of, to have a 
good character; rexque paterque audis- 
ti, have been called, Hor. Antigonus 
credit de suo adventu esse auditum, 
Nep. 

VENTRE ad finem, aures, pactio- 
nem, certamen, manus, nihilum, &c. 
in suspicionem, odium, gratiam, &c. in 
jus, to go to law, Liv. in circulum, into 
a company, Nep. Haereditas ei venit, 
he has succeeded to an estate; ei usu 
venit, happened, Nep. Quod in buc- 
cam venerit, scribito, occurs, Cic. 

Advenire & adventare ei, urbem, 
ad urbem, to come to. 

Antevenire aliquem, & antever- 
tere. Sail, rei, Plaut. tempus, consilia 
& itinera. 

Convenire in colloquium ; fratrem, 
to meet with, to speak to ; ego et frater 
conveniemus, copies convenient, will 



meet together ; convenit mihi cum fra- 
tre de hac re, inter me et fratrem, in- 
ter nos ; haec fratri mecum conveniunt, 
I and my brother are agreed; srevis 
inter se convenit ursis, Juv. Ipsi se- 
cum non convenit, vel ipse, he is incon- 
sistent ; pax convenit, vel conventa est, 
is agreed upon ; rem conventuram pu- 
tamus, Cic. conditiones non convene- 
runt; mores conveniunt, agree ; calcei 
pedibus, v. ad pedes conveniunt,^ 
suit; hoc in ilium convenit; Catilinam 
interfectum esse convenit, ought to have 
been slain, Cic. Convenire in manum, 
the usual form of marriage, named Co- 
emptio, whereby women were called ma- 
tres familias. 

SENTIRE sonorem, colorem, &c. to 
perceive; cum aliquo, to be of one's 
opinion ; bene vel male de eo, to think 
well or ill of him. 

Consentire tibi tecum, inter se; 
alicur rei, de v. in aliqua re ; ad aliquid 
peragendum, to agree; So dissentire: 
et ab aliquo, to disagree ; ne vita ora- 
tioni dissentiat, Senec. 



DEPONENT VERBS. 



PROFITERI philosophiam, to pro- 
fess, to teach publicly; se candidatum, 
to declare himself a candidate for an 
office; pecunias, agros, nomina, &c. 
apud censorem, to give an account of, 
to declare how much one has ; indicium, 
fo promise to make a discovery. 

LOQUI cum aliquo, inter se; some- 
times alieui, ad v. apud aliquem ; ali- 
quid, de aliqua re. 

SEQUI feras ; sectam Caesaris, to be 
of his party, Cic. Assequi, consequi, 
to overtake ; gloriam, to attain. Conse- 
qui hereditatem, to get % Cic. 



Prosequi aliquem amore, laudibus, 
&c. to love, praise, &c. 

NITI hasta; in cubitum, to lean; 
ejus consilio, in eo, to depend on; ad 
gloriam, ad v. in summa, to aim at ; in 
vetitum, in ad versum, contra aliquem, 
pro aliquo, to strive; gradibus, to as- 
cend. 

UTI eo familiariter, to be familiar 
with one ; ventis adversis, to have cross 
winds ; honore usus, one who has enjoy- 
ed a post of honor. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

ESSE magni roboris, v. -no, -re ; ejus spe : in timore, luctu, opinione, itinere, 
opinionis, v. ea opinione ; in maxima &c. cum telo, in vel cum imperio ; mag- 



VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 20S 



no periculo, v. in periculo; in tuto; 
apud se, in his senses; sui juris, v. man- 
cipii, sui potens, v. in sua potestate, to 
be at his own disposal ; Res est in vado, 
is safe, Ter. Est animus, sc. mihi, I 
have a mind, Virg. Est ut, cur, qua- 
mobrem, quod, quin, &c. there is cause ; 
bene, male est mihi, with me; nihil est 
mihi tecum, I have nothing to do with 
you ; Quid est tibi, sc. rei, What is the 
matter with you ? Ter. Cernere erat, 
one might see ; religio est mihi id fa- 
eere, I scruple to do it ; si est, ut facere 
velit, ut facturus sit ut admiserit, &c. 
for si velit, &c. Ter. Est ut viro vir la- 
tius ordinet arbusta sulcis, it happens, 
Hor. Certum est facere, sc. mihi, I 
am resolved, Ter. Non certum est, quid 
faciam, I am uncertain, Id. Cassius quae- 
rere sole bat, Cui Boxo Fuerit : Om- 
nibus bono fuit, it was of advantage, 
Cic. 

Adesse pugnae, in pugna, ad exerci- 
tum, ad tempus, in tempore, cum ali- 
quo, to be present ; alicui, to favor, to 
assist; scribendo, v. esse ad scriben- 
dum, to subscribe one's name to a decree 
of the senate, Cic. consilio utrique, to 
be a counsellor to, Nep. 

Abesse domo, urbe, a domo, ab sig- 
nis, to be absent ; alicui, v. deesse, to be 
wanting, not to assist; a sole, to stand 
out of the sun; sumptus funeri defuit, 
he had not money to bury him, Liv. 
abesse a persona principis, to be incon- 
sistent with the character, Nep. Pau- 
lum v. parum abfuit quin urbem cape- 
rent, quin occideretur, &c. they viere 
near taking, &c. Tantum abest ne 
enervetur oratio, ut, &c. is so far from 
being, &c. Cic. Tantum abfuit a cupi- 
ditate pecuniae, a societate sceleris, &c. ■ 
Nep. 

Interesse convivio, v. in convivio, 
to be at a feast ; anni decern interfue- 
runt, intervened ; stulto intelligens quid 
interest, Ter. Hoc dominus & pater 
interest, Id. Inter hominem & bellu- 
am hoc interest, Cic. differ in this, this 
is the difference; multum interest, 
utrum, it is of great importance. Pons 
inter eos interest, is between, Cic. 

Pr^eesse exercitui, to command ; co- 
mitiis judicio, quaestioni, to preside in 
or at. 

Obesse ei, to hurt, to hinder. 

Superesse, to be read over and above; 
alicui, to survive ; modo vita supersti, 
sc. mihi, if I live ; super est, ut, it re- 
mains, that 

IRE ad arma, ad saga, to go to war ; 
in jus, to go to law; pedibus in senten- 
tiam alicujus, to agree with; viam v. 



via ; res bene eunt, Cic. Tempus, dies, 
mensis, it passes. 

Abire magistratu, to lay down an 
office ; a conspectu, to retire from com- 
pany; in ora hominum,fo be in every 
body's mouth ; ab emptione, to retract 
his bargain; decern menses abierunt, 
have past, Ter. Non hoc tibi sic abi- 
bit, i. e. non feres hoc impune, Ter. 
Abi in malam rem, a form of impreca- 
tion. 

Adire periculum capitis, to run the 
hazard of one's life. 

Exire vita, e, v. de vita, to die ; aere 
alieno,'Cic. Verbum exit exore, Id. 
tela, to avoid, Virg. Tempus inducia- 
rum eum Vejenti pupulo exierat, had 
expired, Liv. 

Inire magistratum; suffragium, ra- 
tionem, consilium, pugnam, viam, &c. 
to enter upon, to begin; gratiam ejus, 
apud eum, cum vel ab eo, to gain his 
favor: Ineunte aestate, vere, anno, &c. 
in the beginning cf; but we seldom say t 
Ineunte die, nocte, &c. Ab ineunte 
aetate, from our early years. 

Obire diem edicti, vel auctionis ju- 
dicium, vadimonium, to be present at; 
provinciam, domos, nostras, to visit, to 
go through, Cic. negotia, res, munus, 
officium, legationem, sacra, to perform ; 
pugnas, Virg. mortem, vel morte ; diem 
supremum, v. diem, to die. 

Pr.«ire alicui, to go before ; verba, 
carmen, vel sacramentum alicui, to re- 
peat or read over before ; alicui voce, 
quid judicet, to prescribe or direct by 
crying, Cic. 

Prodire in publicum, to go abroad; 
non prasterit te, you are not ignorant, 
Cic. Dies induciarum praeteriit, is past, 
Nep. 

Redire in gratiam cum aliquo, to 
become friends again ; ad se, to come to 
himself, to recover his senses. 

Subire murum, vel -o, ad montes, to 
come up to ; laborem vel -i, onus, pce- 
nam, periculum, crimen, to undergo; 
sues, timor subiit animum, came into. 

VELLE aliquem, sc. alloqui vel con- 
ventual, to desire to speak with ; alicui, 
ejus causa, to wisfi one's good ; tibi con- 
sultum volo ; nihil tibi negatum volo, / 
wish to deny, Liv. Quid sibi vult? 
What does he mean ; Volo te hoc facere, 
hoc a te fieri : si quid recte curatura 
velis ; illos monitos etiam atque etiam 
volo, sc. esse, I will admonish them 
again and again, Cic. nollem factum,! 
am sorry it vms done ; nollem hue ex- 
citum, sc. esse a me, / wish I had not 
come out here, Ter. 

FERRE legem, to propose or make ; 



204 VARIOUS SIGNIFICATION AND CONSTRUCTION OF VERBS. 



privilegium de aliquo, to propose or 
pass an act of impeachment against 
one, Cic. rogationem ad populum, to 
bring in a bill ; conditiones ei, to offer 
terms; sufFragium, to vote; sententiam, 
to give an opinion; centuriam, tribum, 
to gain the vote of; perdere, to lose it; 
victoriam ex eo; omne punctum, om- 
nia suffragia, to gain all the votes ; re- 
pulsam, to be rejected ; fructum hoc 
fructi, to reap, Ter. laelitiam de re, to 
rejoice; prse se, to pretend or declare 
openly ; alienam personam, to disguise 
one's-self ; in oculis, to be fond of Teh 
manus, in pralia, to engage, Virg. ac- 
ceptum et expensum, to mark down as 
received and spent, or lent, as Dr. and, 
Cr. Cic. animus, opinio fert, inclines ; 
tempus, res, causa fert, allows, re- 
quires. 

Conferre benevolentiam alicui, in 
vel erga aliquem, to show; beneficia, 
culpam in eum, to confer, to lay ; ope- 
ram, tempus, studium ad vel in rem, & 
impendere, to apply; capita inter se, 
consilia sua, to lay their heads together, 
to consult; signa, arma, manus, to en- 
gage; omne bellum circa Corinthum, 
Nep. pedem, to set foot to foot; ra- 
tiones, to cast up accounts ; caslra, cas- 
tris, to encamp over against one another ; 
se in vel ad urbem, to go to; tribute, 
to pay ; se alicui vel cum aliquo, to 
compare ; neminem cum illo conferen- 
dum pietate puto, Cic. Haec.conferunt 
ad aliquid; oratori futuro, serve, are 
useful to, Quinct. 

Deferre situlam vel sitellam, to 
bring the ballot-box; aliquid ad aliquem, 
to carry word, to tell ; rarely alicui ; 
causam ad patronos; honores ei; gu- 
bernacula reipublicae in eum ; summam 
rerum ad eum, to confer ; in beneficiis 
ad aerarium, to recommend for a public 
service, Cic. aliquem ambitus, de ambi- 
tu, nomen alicujus ad praetorem, apud 
magistratum, to accuse of bribery ; pri- 
mas, sc. partes ei, to give him the pre- 
ference, Cic. 

Differe vel transferre rem in an- 
num ; post bellum, diem solutionis, to 
put off; rumores, to spread; ab aliquo, 
alicui, inter se, moribus, to differ in 
character; amore, cupiditate, doloribus, 
differri, to be distracted or torn asunder, 
Cic. & Ter. 



Efferre fruges, to produce ; verba, 
to utter ; verbum de verbo expressum, 
to translate, Ter. pedem domo, to go 
out ; corpus amplo funere, & cum fu- 
nere, to bury ; ad honorem, ad coelum 
laudibus, to raise, to extol ; foras pec- 
catum, to divulge. 

Inferre bellum patriae ; vim, ma- 
nus, necem alicui, to bring upon ; sig- 
na, se, pedem, to advance; litem, vel 
periculum capitis alicui, vel in aliquem, 
to bring one to a trial for his life. 

Offerre se morii, ad mortem, ut 
discrimen, to expose, to present. 

Perferre legem, to carry through, 
to pass it. 

Pr^eferre faciem ei, to carry be- 
fore; salutem ei reipublicae suis com- 
modis, & anteferre, anteponere, to 
prefer. Praelatus equo, riding be- 
fore. 

Proferre imperium, pomceriumi 
terminos, to enlarge; in medium, in 
apertum, in iucem, to publish; nuptias, 
diem, to delay ; diem Ilio, to defer the 
destruction of, Hor. 

Referre alicui, to answer ; se, gra- 
dum v. pedem, to retreat ; gratiam ali- 
cui, to make a requital ; par pari, Ter. 
victoriam ab, vel ex aliquo, et repor- 
tare, to gain ; institutum, to renew; ju- 
dicia ad equestrem ordinem, to restore 
to the Equites the right of judging; 
aliquis, de aliqua re, ad senatum, ad 
consilium, ad sapientes, ad populum, to 
lay before; aliquid in tabulam, codi- 
cem, album, commentarium, &c. to 
mark down; aliquid acceptum alicui, 
& in acceptum, to acknowledge one's- 
self indebted ; pecunias acceptas & ex- 
pensas, nomina xel summas in codicem 
accepti et experisi, to mark down ac- 
counts; alienos mores ad suos, to judge 
of by ; in v. inter aerarios, to reduce to 
the lowest class ; in numerum deorum, 
in vel inter deos, & reponere, to rank 
among; pugnas, res gestas, to relate; 
patrem ore, to resemble ; amissos colo- 
res, to regain, Horat. 

Transferre rationes in tabulas, to \ 
post one's books, to state accounts; in 
Latinam linguam, to translate; ver- 
ba, to use metaphorically; culpam 
in eum & rejicere, to lay the blame on 
him. 



II. FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure is a manner of speaking different from the ordi- 
nary and plain way, used for the sake of beauty or force. 



FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 205 

The figures of Syntax, or Construction, may be reduced to 
these three, Ellipsis, Pleonasm, and Hyperbdton. 

The two first respect the constituent parts of a sentence ; 
the last respect only the arrangement of the words. 

1. Ellipsis. 

ELLIPSIS is when one or more words are wanting to com- 
plete the sense ; as, Aiunt, ferunt, dicunt, perhibent, scil. 
homines : Die mihi, Damceta, ci/jum pecus } that is, Die (tu) 
mihi, Dam&ta, (eum hominem) cujufa pecus; (est hoc pecus.) 
Aberant bidui, sc. iter vel itinere. Decies sestertium, sc. cen- 
tena millia. Quid multa ? sc. dicam. Antiquum obtines, sc. 
morem v. institutum, Plaut. Hodie in ludum occepi ire liter a- 
Hum, ternas jam scio, sc. literas, i. e. AMO, Id. Triduo ajbs 
te nullas ucceperam, sc. literas, i. e. epistolam, Cic. Brevi 
dicam,, sc. sermone : So complecti, respondere, &c. breve. Dii 
meliora, sc. faciant : Rhodum volo, inde Athenas, sc. ire, Id. 
Bellicum v. classicum canere, sc. signum Liv. Civica dona- 
tus, sc. corona. So obsidionalem, mural em adeptus, &c. Id. 
Epislold librarii manu est, sc. scripta, Cic. So in English, 
"The twelve^" i. e. apostles; " the elect," i. e. persons. 

When a conjunction is to be supplied, it is called Asynde- 
ton ) as, Deus optimus maximus, sc. et ; Sartum tectum con- 
servare, i. e-. sartum et tectum : So Abiit, excessit, evasit, 
erupit, Cic. Ferte citi flammas, date vela, impellite remos, 
Virg. Velis nolis^ sc. seu. 

To this figure may be reduced most of those irregularities 
in Syntax, as they are called, which are variously classed by 
grammarians, under the names of Enallage, i. e. the chang- 
ing of words and their accidents, or the putting of one word 
for another; Antiptosis, i. e. the putting of one case for 
another ; Hellenism or Gr^cism, i. e. imitating the construc- 
tion of the Greeks ; Synesis, i. e. referring the construction, 
not to the gender or number of the word, but to the sense, 
&c. ; thus, Samnitium duo millia casi, is, Duo millia (homi- 
num) Samnitium (fuerunt homines) ccesi, Liv. So Servitia 
immemores, Liv. Monstrum qua, scil. mulier, Hor. Scelus 
qui, sc. homo, Ter. Omnia Mercurio similis, scil. secundum, 
Virg. Missi magnxs de rebus uterque, legati ; i.e. Missi le- 
gati (et) uterque (legatus missus) de magnxs rebus, Horat. 
Servitia repudiabat, cujus, scil. servitii, Sail. Cat. 51. Fami- 
lia nostra, quorum, &c. sc. hominum, Sail. Concursus popuU, 
mirantium, Liv. Ilium ut vivat optant, for ut ille vivat, Ter. 
Populum late regem, for regnantem, Virg. Expedlti militum^ 
for milites; Classis stabat Rkegii, for ad Rhegium, Liv, 

S 



206 FIGURES Of SYNTAX. 

Latium Capuaque agro multati, sc. homines, Id. Vtraque 
formosce, sc. mulieres, Ovid. Aperite aliquis ostium, Ter. 
Sensit delapsus, for delapsttm, sc. se esse, Virg. 

When a writer frequently uses the Ellipsis, his style is said 
to be elliptical or concise. 

PLEONASM. 

PLEONASM is when a word more is added than is abso- 
lutely necessary to express the sense ; as, Video oculis, I see 
with niy eyes ; Sic ore locuta est ; adest prcesens ; Nusqiiam 
gentium; vivere vitam; servire servitutem; Quidmihi Celsus 
agit ? Fac me ut sciam, &c. Suo sibi gladio hunc jugulo t 
Ter. Suo sibi succo vivant, Plaut. 

When a conjunction is used apparently redundant, it is 
called Polysyndeton; as, Una Eurusque Notusque ruunt 

When that which is in reality one, is. so expressed as if 
there were two, it is called Hendiadys ; as, Pateris libamus 
et auro, for aureis pateris, Virg. 

When several words are used to express one thing, it is called 
Periphrasis ; as, Urbs Trojce., for Troja, Virg. Res volup- 
tatum, for voluptates, Plaut. Usus purpurarum, for purpura ; 
Genus piscium, for pisces ; Flores rosarum, for rosce, Hor. 

3. Hyperbaton. 

HYPERBATON is the transgression of that order or ar- 
rangement of words which is commonly used in any language- 
It is chiefly to be met with among the poets. The various 
sorts into which it is divided, are, Anastrophe, Hysteron pro- 
teron, Hypalldge, Synchesis, Tmesis, and Parenthesis. 

1. AnxIstrophe is the inversion of words, or the placing of 
that word last which should be first ; as, Italiam contra ; His 
accensa super ; Spemque metumque inter dubii ; for contra 
Italiam, super his, inter spem, &c. Virg. Terr am sol facit 
are, for arefacit, Luoret. 

2. Hysteron proteron is when that is put in the former 
part of the sentence, which, according to the sense, should 
be in the latter; as, Valet atque vivit, for vivit atque valet, x 
Ter. 

3. Hypallage is the exchanging of cases ; as, Dare clas- 
sibus austros, for dare classes austris, Virg. 

4. Synchesis is a confused and intricate arrangement of 
words ; as, Saxa vocant Mali mediis, qua in fuctibus aras, 
for Qua saxa in mediis jluctibus Itali vocant aras. Virg. 



ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION. 207 

This occurs particularly in violent passion ; as, Per tibi ego 
hunc juro fortem castumque cruorem, Ovid, Fast. ii. 841. Per 
vos liberos atque parentes, sc. oro vos per liberos, &c. Sallust. 
Jug. 14. 

5. Tmesis is the division of a compound word and the in* 
terposing of other words betwixt its parts ; as, Septem sub- 
jecta trioni gens, for Septentrioni, Virg. Quae meo cunque 
animo libitum est facere, for qucecunque, Ter. Quern sors 
dierum cunque dabit, lucro Appone, Horat. 

6. Parenthesis is the inserting of a member into the body 
of a sentence, which is neither necessary to the sense, nor at 
all affects the construction ; as, Tityre, dum redeo, (brevis est 
via,) pasce capellas, Virg. 

III. Analysis and Translation. 

The difficulty of translating either from English into Latin, 
or from Latin into English, arises in a great measure from the 
different arrangement of words which takes place in the two 
languages. 

In Latin the various terminations of nouns, and the inflec- 
tion of adjectiyes and verbs, point out the relation of one 
word to another, in whatever order they are placed. But in 
English the agreement and government of words can only be 
determined from the particular part of the sentences in which 
they stand. Thus, in Latin, we can either say, Alexander 
vicit Barium, or Darium vicit Alexander, or Alexander Ba- 
rium vicit, or Barium Alexander vicit ; and in each of these 
the sense is equally obvious: but, in English, we can only 
say, Alexander conquered Barius. This variety of arrange- 
ment in Latin gives it a great advantage over the English, 
not only in point of energy and vivacity of expression, but 
also in point of harmony. We sometimes, indeed., for the 
sake of variety and force, imitate in English the inversion of 
words which takes place in Latin ; as, Him the Eternal hurVd, 
Milton; Whom ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you* 
But this is chiefly to be used in poetry. 

With regard to the proper order of words to be observed in 
translating from English into Latin, the only certain rule 
which can be given, is to imitate the Classics. 

The order of words in sentences is said to be either simple 
or artificial ; or, as it is otherwise expressed, either natural 
or oratoriaL 

The Simple or Natural order is, when the words of a sen- 
tence are placed one after another, according to the natural 
order of syntax? 



208 ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION. 

Artificial or Oratorial order is, when words are so ar- 
ranged as to render them most striking, or most agreeable to 
the ear. 

All Latin writers use an arrangement of words, which ap- 
pears to us more or less artificial, because different from our 
own, although to them it was as natural as ours is to us.' In 
order, therefore, to render any Latin author into English, we 
must first reduce the words in Latin to the order of English, 
which is called the Analysis or Resolution of sentences. It 
is only practice that can teach one to do this with readiness. 
However, to a beginner, the observation of the following rule 
may be of advantage. 

Take first the words which serve to introduce the sentence, 
or show its dependence on what went before ; next, the nomi* 
native, together with the words which it agrees with or gov- 
erns ; then, the verb and adverbs joined with it ; and lastly, 
the cases which the verb governs, together with the circum- 
stances subjoined to the end of the sentence ; supplying, 
through the whole, the words which are understood. 

If the sentence is compound, it must be resolved into the 
several sentences of which it is made up ; as, 

Vale igitur, mi Cicero, tibique persuade esse te quidem mihi carissimum ; sed 
multo fore cariorem, si talibus monumentis prceceptisque Icetabere, Cic. Off lib. 
3. fin. 

Farewell then, my Cicero, and assure yourself that you are indeed very dear 
to me ; but shall be much dearer, if you shall take delight in such writings and 
instructions. 

This compound sentence may be resolved into these five simple sentences; 
1. Igitur, mi (fili) Cicero, (tu) vale, 2. et (tu) persuade tibi (ipsi) te esse quidem 
(filium) carissimum mihi; 3. sed (tu persuade tibi ipse te) fore (filium) cariorem 
(mihi in) mulio (negotio), 4. si (tu) latabere talibus monumentis, 5. et (si tu laeta- 
bere talibus) pracept.is. 

1. Fare {you) well then, my (son) Cicero, 2. and assure (you) yourself that you 
are indeed (a son) very dear to me : 3. but (assure you yourself that you) shall 
be (a son) much dearer (to me), 4. if you shall take delight in such writings, 5. 
and (if you shall take delight in such) instructions. 

It may not be improper here to exemplify Analogical Ana* 
lysis, as it is called, or the analysis of words, from the forego- 
ing sentence, Vale igitur, &c. thus, 

Vale, scil. tu ; Fare (thou) well ; Second person singular of the imperative 
mode, active voice, from the neuter verb, Valeo, valui, valttum, vallre, to be in 
health, of the second conjugation, not used in the passive. Vale agrees in the 
second person singular with the nominative tu, by the third rule of syntax. 

Igitur, then, therefore, a conjunction, importing some inference drawn from 
what went before. 

Mi, voc. sing. masc. of the adjective pronoun, mens, -a, -urn, my; derived 
from the substantive pronoun Ego, agreeing with Cicero, by Rule 2. Cicero, 
voc. sing, from the nominative Cicero, -onis, a proper noun of the third de- 
clension. 

Et, and, a copulative conjunction which connects the verb persuade with 
jtjie verb vale, by Rule 53, We turn que into et, because que never stands by 
itself. 



ANALYSIS AND TRANSLATION. 200 

Persuade, scil. tu, persuade thou, second person singular of the imperative 
active, from the verb persua-deo, -si, -sum, -dire, to persuade ; compounded of 
the preposition per and sua-deo, -si, -sum, to advise; used impersonally in the 
passive ; thus, Persuadetur mihi, I am persuaded ; seldom or never Ego per- 
suadeor. We say, however^ in the third person, Hie persuadetur mihi, I am 
persuaded of this. 

Tibi, dat. sing, of the personal pronoun tu, thou ; governed by persuade, ac- 
cording to Rule 17. Te, accusative singular of tu, put before esse, according to 
Rule 4. 

Esse, present of the infinitive from the substantive verb sum,fui, esse, to be. 

Quidem, indeed, an adverb, joined with carissimum or esse. 

Carissimum, accusative sing. masc. from carissimus, -a, -um, very dear, dear- 
est, superlative degree of the adjective car ws, -a, -um, dear: Comparative de- 
gree, carior, carior, carius, dearer, more dear ; agreeing with te or filium under- 
stood, by Rule 2., and put in the accusative by Rule 5. 

Mihi, to me, dat. sing, of the substantive pronoun Ego, I; governed by ca- 
rissimum, by Rule 12. 

Sed, but, an adversative conjunction, joining esse and fore. 

Fore, the same with esse futunim\ to be, or to be about to be, infinitive of 
the defective verb, for em, -res, -ret, &c. governed in the same manner with 
the foregoing esse, thus, te fore, Rule 45, or thus, esse aed f&re. See Rule 53. 

Multo, scil. negotio, ablat. sing. neut. of the adjective multus, -a, -um, much, 
put in the ablative according to observation 6, Rule 56. But multo here may 
be taken adverbially in the same manner with much in English. 

Cariorem, accus. sing. masc. from carior, -or, -us, the comparative of carus, 
as before; agreeing with te or filium understood. ' Rule 2 or Rule 5. 

Si, if, a conditional conjunction, joined either with the indicative mode or 
with the subjunctive, according to the sense, but oftener with the latter. See 
Rule 55, obs. 2. 

Lcetabere, Thou shalt rejoice, second person singular of the future of the in- 
dicative from the deponent verb Icetor, Icetatus, Icetari, to rejoice: Future lest- 
nbor, -aberis .or -abere, -dbitur, &c. 

Talibus, ablat. plur. neut. of the adjective talis, talis, tale, such ; agreeing 
with monumentis, the ablat. plur. of the substantive noun monumentum, -ti, 
neut. a monument or writing, of the second declension; derived from moneo, 
*wi, -itum, -ere, to admonish ; here put in the ablative according to Rule 44. Et, 
a copulative conjunction, as before. 

Prceceptis, a substantive noun in the ablative plural from the nominative prce- 
ceptum, -tii neut. a precept, an instruction; derived from prcecipio, -cepi, -ceptum, 
-cipere, to instruct, to order, compounded of the preposition prce, before, and the 
verb capio, cepi, captum, capere, to take. The a of the simple is changed into 
i short; thus, prcecipio, prcecipis, &c. 

The learner may in like manner be taught to analyze the words in English, 
and, in doing so, to mark the different idioms of the- two languages. 

To this may be subjoined a Praxis, or Exercise on all the different parts of 
grammar, particularly with regard to the inflexion of nouns and verbs in the 
form of questions, such as these, Of Cicero ? Ciceronis. With Cicero ? Cice- 
rone. A dear son? Carus filius. Of a: dear son? Cari filii. my dear son? 
Mi or meus care fili. Of dearer sons? Carior umfili drum, &c. 

Of thee? or of you ? Tui. With thee or you, te : Of you ? Vestrum or vestri. 
With you? Vobis. 

They shall persuade? Persuadebunt. I can persuade? Persuadeam, or much 
more frequently possum persuadere. They are persuaded? Persuadetur, or per- 
suasum est illis, according to the time expressed. He is to persuade ? Est per- 
suasurus. He will be persuaded ? Persuadebitur, or persuasum erit illi. He 
cannot ^>e persuaded'? Non potest persuaderi illi. I know that he cannot be 
persuaded ? Scio non posse persuaderi illi. That he will be persuaded? Ei per- 
suasum iriy &c» 

Whea a learner first begins to translate from the Latin, lie 
should keep as strictly to the literal meaning of the words as 
the different idioms of the two languages will permit. But 

s2 



210 DIFFERENT KINDS OF STYLE. 

after he has made farther progress, something" more will be 
requisite. He should then be accustomed,. as much as possi- 
ble, to transfuse the beauties of an author from the one lan- 
guage into the other. For this purpose it will be necessary 
that he be acquainted, not only with the idioms of the two 
languages, but also with the different kinds of style adapted 
to different sorts of composition, and to different subjects ; to- 
gether with the various turns of thought and expression which 
writers employ, or what are called the figures of words and of 
thought ; or the Figures of Rhetoric. 

IV. Different Kinds of Style. 

The kinds of Style {genera dicendi) are commonly reckon- 
ed three ; the low, (humile, submissum, tentie) ; the middle, 
(medium, temperatum, ornatum, floridum) ; and the sublime, 
{sublime, grande). 

But besides these, there are various other characters of 
style ; as, the diffuse and concise ; the feeble and nervous ; 
the simple and affected, &c. 

There are different kinds of style adapted to different sub- 
jects and to different kinds of composition ; the style of the 
Pulpit, of the Bar, and of Popular Assemblies ; the style of 
History and of its various branches, Annals, Memoirs, or 
Commentaries^ and Lives; the style of Philosophy, of Dia- 
logue or Colloquial Discourse, of Epistles, and Romance, &c. 

There is also a style peculiar to certain writers, called their 
Manner ; as, the style of Cicero, of Livy, of Sallust, &c. 

But what deserves particular attention is, the difference 
between the style of poetry and of prose. As the poets in 
a manner paint what they describe, they employ various epi- 
thets, repetitions, and turns of expression, which are not ad- 
mitted in prose. 

The first virtue of style {virtus orationis) is perspicuity, or 
that it be easily understood. This requires, in the choice of the 
words, 1. Purity, in opposition to barbarous, obsolete, or new- 
coined words, and to errors in Syntax : 2. Propriety, or the 
selection of the best expressions, in opposition to vulgarisms 
or low expressions ; 3. Precision, in opposition to superfluity 
of words or a loose style. 

The things chiefly to be attended to in the structure of a 
sentence, or in the disposition of its parts, are, 1. Clearness, 
in opposition to ambiguity and obscurity: 2. Unity and 
Strength, in opposition to an unconnected, intricate, and fee- 
ble sentence : 3. Harmony, or musical arrangement, in oppo- 
sition to harshness of sound. 



FIGURES OP RHETORIC. 211 

The most common defects of style (vitia orationis) are dis- 
tinguished by various names : 

1. A BARBARISM is when a foreign or strange word is 
made use of; as, crqftus, for agellus ; rigorosvs, for rigidus 
or severus ; alterare, for mutare, &c. Or when the rules of 
Orthography, Etymology, or Prosody are transgressed ; as, 
charus for carus ; stavi for steti ; tibicen, for tibicen. 

2. A SOLECISM is when the rules of Syntax are trans- 
gressed ; as, Dicit libros lectos iri, for ledum iri : We was 
walking, for we icere. A barbarism may consist in one word, 
but a solecism requires several words. 

3. An IDIOTISM is when the manner of expression pecu- 
liar to one language is used in another ; as an Anglicism in 
Latin, thus, I am to write, Ego sum scribere, for Ego sum 
scripturus ; it is I, Est ego, for Ego sum : Or a Latinism in 
English, thus, Est sapientior me, He is wiser than me, for than 
I; Quern dicunt me esse 1 Whom do they say that I am ? for 
who, &c. 

4. TAUTOLOGY is when we either uselessly repeat the 
same words, or repeat the same sense in different words. 

5. BOMBAST is when high-sounding words are used with- 
out meaning, or upon a trifling occasion, 

6. AMPHIBOLOGY is when, by tbe ambiguity of the 
construction, the meaning may be taken in two different 
senses ; as in the answer of the oracle to Pyrrhus, Aio te, 
JEacide, Romanos vincere posse. But the English is not so 
liable to this as the Latin. 

V. Figures of Rhetoric. 

Certain modes of speech are termed Figurative, because 
they convey our meaning under a borrowed form, or in a par- 
ticular dress. 

Figures (figura or schemata) are of two kinds ; figures of 
words, (Jigurte verborum,) and figures of thought, {figurm 
sententiarum.) The former are properly called Tropes ; and 
if the word be changed, the figure is lost. 

1. Tropes, or Figures of Words. 

A Trope (conversio,) is an elegant turning of a word from 
its proper signification. 

Tropes take their rise partly from the barrenness of lan- 
guage, but more from the influence of the imagination and 
passions. They are founded on the relation which one object 
bears to another, chiefly that of resemblance or similitude. 



212 FIGURES OP RHETORIC. 

The principal tropes are the Metaphor, Metonymy, Synec* 
doche, and Irony, 

1. METAPHOR (translatio) is when a word is transferred 
from that to which it properly belongs, to express something 
to which it is only applied from similitude or resemblance ; 
as, a hard heart ; a soft temper ; he bridles his anger ; a joy* 
ful crop ; ridet ager, the field smiles, &c. A metaphor is 
nothing else but a short comparison. 

We likewise call that a metaphor, when we substitute one 
object in the place of another, on account of the close resem- 
blance between them; as when instead of youth, we say the 
morning or spring time of life ; or when, in speaking of a 
family connected with a common parent, we use the expres- 
sions which properly belong to a tree, whose trunk and 
branches are connected with a common root. When this al- 
lusion is carried on through several sentences, or through a 
whole discourse, and the principal subject kept out of view, 
so that it can only be discovered by its resemblance to the 
subject described, it is called an Allegory. An example of 
this we have in Horace, book I. ode 14, where the republic 
is described under the allusion of a ship. 

An ALLEGORY is only a continued metaphor. This figure 
is much the same with the Parable, which so often occurs in 
the sacred scriptures ; and with the Fable, such as those of 
iEsop. The JEnigma or Riddle is also considered as a species 
of the Allegory ; as likewise are many Proverbs (proverbia v. 
Adagia ;) thus, In sylvam ligna ferre, Horat. 

Metaphors are improper when they are taken from low 
objects; when they are forced or far-fetched ; when they are 
mixed or too far pursued ; and when they have not a natural 
and sensible resemblance ; or are not adapted to the subject 
of discourse, or to the kind of composition, whether poetry 
or prose. 

When a word is very much turned from its proper significa- 
tion, it is called Catachresis (abusio ;) as, a leaf of paper, of 
gold, &c. the empire flourished ; parriclda, for any murderer; 
Vir gregi ipse caper, Virg. Altum asdificant caput, Juv. Hunc 
vobis deridendum propino, for trado, Ter. Eurus per Siculas 
equitavit undas, Hor. 

When a word is taken in two senses in the same phrase, 
the one proper and the other metaphorical, it is called Syl- 
lepsis (comprehensio ;) as, Galatea thymo mihi dulcior Hyblce, 
Virg. Ego sardois videar tibi amarior herbis, Id. 

2. METONYMY (mutatio nominis) is the putting of one 
name for another. In which sense it includes all other tropes ; 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 21 S 

but it is commonly restricted to the following particulars: 
1. When the cause is put for the effect; or the inventor for 
the thing invented; or the author, for his works ; as, Bourn 
labores, for corn; Mars, for war ; thus, JEquo marte pugna- 
turn est, with equal advantage, Liv. Ceres, for grain, or bread; 
Bacchus x for wine; Venus, for love ; Vulcanus, for fire ; thus, 
Sine Cerere <$f Baccho friget Venus, Ter. Furit Vulcanus, 
Virg. So a general is put for his army ; Cicero, Virgil^ and 
Horace, for their ivorks ; Moses and the Prophets, for their 
books ; a beautiful Raphael, Titian, Guido Rheni, Rembrandt , 
Reubens, Vandyke, (fee. for their pictures. 2. When the effect 
is put for the cause ; as, Pallida mors, Pale death, because it 
makes pale ; atra cura, &c- 3. The container, for what is 
contained, and sometimes the contrary ; as, Hausii pateram, 
for vinum, Virg. He loves his bottle, for drink : Secundum 
mensam servis dispertiit, i. e.fercula in mensa, Nep. So Roma, 
for Romani '; Europe, for the Europeans ; Heaven, for the Su- 
preme Being ; Secernit Europen ab Afro, for Africa ; In ar» 
duos tollor Sabinos, for in agrum Sabinorum ; Incolumi Jove, 
for Capitolio ; Janus, for the temple of Janus, Hor. Proxi- 
mus ardet Ucalegon, for domus Ucalegontis, Virg. So Ser- 
gestus, for his ship, Id. Mn. v. 272. 4. The sign, for the 
thing signified ; as, The crown, for royal authority ; palma or 
laurus, for victory ; cedant arma toga, that is, as Cicero him- 
self explains it, bellum concedat pact, Ferri togceque consi- 
lia, consultations about war and peace, Stat. Sylv. v. 1. 82. 
5. An abstract, for the concrete ; as, Scelus, for scelestus, 
Ter. Audacia, for audax, Cic. Custodia, for custodes, Virg. 
Servitus, for servi ; nobilitas, for nobiles ; juventus, for juve- 
nes ; vicinia, for vicini ; vires, for strongmen, Hor. Furta, 
for stolen oxen, Ovid, Fast. i. 560. 6. The parts of the body, 
for certain passions or sentiments, which were supposed to re- 
side in them ; thus, cor, for wisdom or address ; as, habet cor, 
' mr cordatus, a man of sense, Plant. But with us the heart 
is put for courage or affection, and the head for wisdom ; thus, 
a stout heart ; a warm heart ; a sound head, &c. So, to have 
a welhhung tongue, for to speak with ease, &e. 

When we put what follows to express what goes before, or 
the contrary, it is called Metalepsis, (transmutatio ;) thus, de- 
siderari, to be desired or regretted, for to be dead, lost, or ab- 
sent : So Fuimus Troes, S$> ingens gloria Dardanice, i. e. are 
no more, Virg. JEn. ii. 325. 

3. SYNECDOCHE (comprehensio, or conceptio) is a trope 
by which a word is made to signify more or less than in its 
proper sense; as, 1. When a genus is put for a species, or a 



214 FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

whole for a part, and the contrary ; thus, Mortales, for homi- 
nes; summa arbor, for summa pars arboris ; priusquam pabu- 
la gustassent Trojce, Xanthumque bibissent, for partem pabuli, 
& fluminis Xanthi, Virg. Nat uncta carina, for navis ; cen- 
tum puppes, a hundred sail, or a hundred ships ; tectum, the 
roof, for the whole house ; capita or animce, for homines ; 
ungula, for equus or equi, Horat. Sat. i. 1. 114; *he door, or 
even the threshold, for the house or temple, tumforibus diva, 
for in templo diva, Virg. Tempe, for any beautiful vale, &c. 
2. When a singular i& put for a plural, and the contrary; 
thus, Hostis, miles, pedes, eques, for hostes, fyc. It is written in 
the prophets, for in a book of some one of the prophets ; mil- 
lies, a thousand times, for many times. 3. When the mate- 
rials are put for the things made of them; as, JEs or argen- 
tum, for money ; (Era, for vases of brass, trumpets, arms, &c. ; 
ferrum, for a sword ; taurus, for a bull's hide, Virg. Dust 
thou art, i. e. made of dust, &c. 

When a common name is put for a proper name, or the 
contrary, it is called Antonomasia (pronominatio ;) as, the 
Philosopher, for Aristotle ; the Orator, for Demosthenes or 
Cicero ; the Poet, for Homer or Virgil ; the Wise Man, foe 
Solomon; Astu, for Athens: Urbs, the city or town, for the 
capital of any country ; Poznus, for Hannibal ; a Nero, for a 
cruel prince ; Mcecenas, for a patron of learning; as, Sint 
Mcecenates, non deerunU Flacce, Mar ones, i. e. sint munifici 
patroni, non deerunt boni poetce, Martial, viii. 56. 5. 

An Antonomasia is often made by a Periphrasis ; as, Pe- 
lopis parens, for Tantalus ; Anyti reus, for Socrates; Troja- 
ni belli scriptor, for Homer ; Chironis alumnus, for Achilles ; 
Potor Rhodani, for Gallus ; Jubce tellus, for Mauritania, 
Horat, &c. or by a patronymic noun ; as-, Anchisiddes, for 
JEneas ; Tynddris, *idis, for Helena, &c. or by an epithet ; 
as, Impius reliquit, for JEneas, Virg. sometimes with the 
noun added ; as, Fatalis et incestus judex, famosus hospes^ 
for Paris, Hor. 

4. IRONY is when one means the contrary of what is said; 
as, when we say of a bad poet, he is a Virgil ; or of a profli- 
gate person, Tertius e cwlo cecidit Cato. 

When any thing is said by way of bitter raillery, or in an 
insulting manner, it is called a SARCASM ; as, Satia te San- 
guine, Cyre, Justin. Italiam metirejacens, Virg. 

When an affirmation is expressed in a negative form, it is 
called Litotes ; as, He is a fool, for he is a man of sense ; 
Non humilis mulier, for nobilis or superba; non indecoro pul- 
qere for ' decoro, Horat. When a word has a meaning con* 



PIGURES OP RHETORIC. 215 

trary to its original sense, it is called Antiphrdsis ; as, auri 
sacra fames, for execrabilis, Virg. Pontus Euxini falso nomi- 
ne dictus, i. e. hospitalism Ovid. 

When any thing sad or offensive is expressed in more gen- 
tle terms, it is called Euphemismus ; as, Vita functus, for m,or- 
tuus ; conclamare suos, to give up for lost, Liv. Valeant, for 
abeant ; mactare or ferire, for occidere ; Fecerunt id servi, 
Melonis, quod suos quisque servos in tali re facere voluisset> 
i. e. Clodium inter fecerunt, Cic. This figure is often the 
same with the Periphrasis. 

The Periphrasis, or Circumlocution, is when several words 
are employed to express what might be expressed in fewer. 
This is done either from necessity, as in translating from one 
language into another ; or to explain what is obscure, as in 
definitions ; or for the sake of ornament, particularly in poetry, 
as in the descriptions of evening and morning, &c. 

When, after explaining an obscure word or sentence by a 
periphrasis, one enlarges on the thought of the author, it is 
called a Paraphrase. _ 

When a word imitates the sound of a thing signified, it is 
called Onomatopoeia, (nominis fictio ;) as, the whistling of 
winds, purling of streams, buzz and hum of insects, hiss of ser- 
pents, &c. But this figure is not properly a trope. 

It is sometimes difficult to ascertain to which of the above* 
mentioned tropes certain expressions ought to be referred. 
But in such cases minute exactness is needless. It is sufn- 
cient to know in general that the expression is figurative. 

There are a great many tropes peculiar to every language, 
which cannot be literally expressed in any other. These, 
therefore, if possible, must be rendered by other figurative ex- 
pressions equivalent; and if this cannot be done, their mean- 
ing should be conveyed in simple language ; thus, Interiore 
nota Falerni, with a glass of old Falernian wine : Ad umbilu 
cum ducere, to bring to a conclusion, Horat. These, and 
other such figurative expressions, cannot be properly explained 
without understanding the particular customs to which they 
refer. 

2. Repetition op Words. 

Various repetitions of words are employed for the sake of 
elegance or force, and are therefore also called Figures of 
words. Rhetoricians have distinguished them by different 
names, according to the part of the sentence in which they 
take place. 



21 6 FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

When the same word is repeated in the beginning of any member of a sen- 
tence, it is called ANAPHORA ; as, Nihilne te nocturnum presidium palatii, 
nihil urbis vigilice,' &c. Cic. Te dulcis conjux, te solo in littore secum, Te ve- 
niente die, te descendente canebat, Virg. 

When the repetition is made in the end of the member it is called EPI- 
STROPHE, or conversio ; as, Poenos Populus Romanus justitia vicit, armis vicit, 
liberalitate vicit, Cic. Sometimes both the former occur in the same sentence, 
and then it is called SYMPLOGE, or Complexio; as, Quis legem tulit? Rullus, 
Quis, &c. Rullus, Cic. 

When the same word is repeated in the beginning of the first clause of a 
sentence, and in the end of the latter, it is called EPATVALEPSIS ; as, Vidi- 
mus victoriam tuam prceliorum exitu terminatam ; gladium vagina vacuum in 
urbe non vidimus, Cic. pro Marcello. * 

The reverse of the former is called ANADAPLOSIS, or Reduplicatio ; as, 
Hie tamen vivit -; vivit ! imo in senatum venit, Cic. 

When that which is placed first in the foregoing member, is repeated last in 
the following, and the contrary, it is called EPANODOS, or Regressio ; as, Cru- 
delis ttl quoque mater ; Crudelis mater magis an puer improbus ille ? Improbus 
ille puer, crudelis tu quoque mater, Virg. 

The passionate repetition of the same word in any part of a sentence, is call- 
ed EPIZEUXIS ; as, Excitate, excitate eum ab inferis, Cic. Fuit, fuit ista vir- 
tus, &c. Id. Me, me adsum qui feci, in me convertite fertum, Virg. Bella, hor- 
rida bella, Id. Ibimus, ibimus, Hor. 

When we proceed from one thing to another, so as to connect by the same 
word the subsequent part of a sentence with the preceding, it is called CLI- 
MAX, or Gradatio; as, Africano virtutem industria, virtus gloriam gloria amn- 
ios comparavit, Cic. 

When the same word is repeated in various cases, moods, genders, numbers, 
&c. it is called POLYPTOTON ; as, Pleni sunt omnes libri, plena? sapientium 
voces, plena exemplorumvetustas, Cic. Littora littoribuscontraria,jluctibusundas 
imprecor, arma armis, Virg. To this is usually referred what is called SYNO- 
NYMIA, or the using of words of the same import, to express a thing more 
strongly ; as, Non feram, non patiar, non sinam, Cic. Promitto^ recipio, spon- 
deo, Id. Also EXPOSITIO, which repeats the same thought in different lights. 

When a word is repeated, the same in sound but not in sense, it is called 
ANTANACLASIS; as, Amari jucundum est, si curetur ne quid insit amari, 
Cic. But this is reckoned a defect in style, rather than a beauty. Nearly allied 
to this figure is the PARONOMASIA, or Agnominatio, when the words only 
resemble one another in sound ; as, Civem bonarum artium, bonarum partium ; 
Consul pravo animo fy parvo ; Be oratore arator /actus, Cic. Amantes sunt 
amentes, Ter. This is also called a PUN. 

When two or more words are joined in any part of a sentence in the same 
cases or tenses, it is called HOMOIOPTOTON, i. e. similiter cadens ; as, Pollet 
auctoritate, circumjluii opibus, abundat amicis, Cic. If the words have only a 
similar termination, it is called HOMOIOTELEUTON, i. e> similiter desinens ; 
as, Non ejusdem est facere fortiter, § vivere turpiter, Cip. 

3. Figures of Thought. 

It is not easy to reduce figures of thought to distinct class* 
es, because the sime figure is employed for several different 
purposes. The principal are the Hyperbole, Prosopopeia, 
Apostrophe, Simile, Antithesis, &c. 

1. HYPERBOLE is when a thing is magnified above the 
truth ; as, when Virgil speaking of Polyphemus says, Ipse ar- 
duus altaque pulsat sidera. So Contractor pisces cequora sen- 
tiunt, Hor. When an object is diminished below the truth, it 
is called Tapeinosis. The use of extravagant Hyperboles 
forms what is called Bombast. 



FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 217 

2. PROSOPOPEIA, or Personification, is when we ascribe 
life, sentiments, or actions, to inanimate beings, or to abstract 
qualities ; as, Qua (patria) tecum. Catilina, sic agit, &c. 
Cic. Virtus sumit aut ponit secures, Hor. Arbore nunc aquas 
culpante, Id. ■ 

3. APOSTROPHE, or Address, is when the speaker breaks 
off from the series of his discourse, and addresses himself to 
some person, present or absent, living or dead, or to inanimate 
nature, as if endowed with sense and reason. This figure is 
nearly allied to the former, and therefore often joined with it ; 
as, Trojaque nunc stares, Priamique arx alta maneres, Virg. 

4. SIMILE, or Comparison, is when one thing is illustrated 
or heightened by comparing it to another ,• as, Alexander was 
us bold as a lion. 

5. ANTITHESIS, or Opposition, is when things contrary 
or different are contrasted, to make them appear in the most 
striking light ; as, Hannibal was cunning, but Fabius was cau- 
tious. Casar beneficiis ac munificentia magnus habebatur, 
integritate vita Cato, &c. Sail. Cat. 54. Ex hac parte pudor 
pugnat, illinc petulantia, &c. Cic. Similar to this figure is 
the Oxumoron, i. e. acute dictum ; as, Amid absentes adsunt, 
6zc. Cic. Impietate pia est, Ovid. Num capti potuere capi, 
Virg. 

6. INTERROGATION, (Grsec. Erotesis,) is a figure 
whereby we do not simply ask a question, but express some 
strong feeling or affection of the mind in that form ; as, Quous- 
que tandem, &c. Cic. Creditis avectos hostes?\irg. Heu ! 
qua me aquora possunt accipere, Id. Sometimes an answer is 
returned, in which case it is called Subjectio ; as, Quid ergo ? 
audacissimus ego ex omnibus ? minime, Cic. Nearly allied to 
this is Expostulation, when a person pleads with offenders to 
return to their duty. 

7. EXCLAMATION, (Ecphonesis ;) as, O nomen dulce 
libertatis ! &c. Cic. O tempora, O mores ! Id. O patria ! 
O Divum domus Ilium ! &c. Virg. 

8. DESCRIPTION, or Imagery, (Hypotyposis,) when any 
thing is painted in a lively manner, as if done before our eyes. , 
Hence it is also called Vision ; as, Videor mihi hanc urbem w- 
dere, &c. Cic. in Cat. iv. 6. Videre magnosjam videor duces, 
Non indecoro, pulvere sordidos, Hor. Here a change of tense is 
often used, as the present for the past, and conjunctions omit- 
ted, &c. Virg. xi. 637, &c. 

9. EMPHASIS is when a particular stress is laid on some 
word in a sentence ; as, Hannibal peto pacem, Liv. Proh I Ju- 
piter ibit hic ! Virg. 

T 



218 FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

10. Epanarthosis, or Correction, is when the speaker 
either recalls or corrects what he had last said ; as, Filium ha* 
bui, ah ! quid dixi habere me ? imb habui, Ter. 

11. Paralepsis, or Omission, is when one pretends to omit 
or pass by what he at the same time declares. 

12. Aparithmesis, or Enumeration, is when what might be 
expressed in a few words, is branched out into several parts. 

13. Synathroismus, or Coacervatio, is the crowding of 
many particulars together ; as, 

— Faces in castra tulissem, 

Implessemque foros fammis, natumque, patremque, 
Cum genere extinxem, memet super ipsa dedissem. Virg. 

14. Incrementum, or CLIMAX in sense, is when one num* 
ber rises above another to the highest ; as, Facinus est vincire 
civem Romanum, scelus verberare, parricidium necare, Cic. 
When all the circumstances of an object or action are artfully 
exaggerated, it is called Auxesis, or Amplification. But this 
is properly not one figure, but the skilful employment of seve- 
ral, chiefly of the Simile and the Climax. 

15. Transition (metabasis) is when a speech is abruptly 
introduced ; or when a writer suddenly passes from one sub- 
ject to another ; as, Horat. Od. ii. 13. 13. In strong passion, 
a change of person is sometimes used ; as, Virg. Mn. iv. 365, 
&c. xi. 406, &c. 

16. Suspensio, or Sustenatio, is when the mind of the 
hearer is long kept in suspense ; to which the Latin inversion 
of words is often made subservient. 

17. Concessio is the yielding of one thing to obtain an- 
other ; as, Sit fur, sit sacrilegus, &c. at est bonus imperator, 
Cic. in Verrem, v. 1. Prolepsis, Prevention or Anticipation, 
is when an objection is started and answered. Anacoinosis, 
or Communication, is when the speaker deliberates with the 
judges or hearers ; which is also called Diaporesis or Addu- 
bitatio. Licentia, or the pretending to assume more freedom 
than is proper, is used for the sake of admonishing, rebuking, 
and also flattering ; as, Vide quam non reformidem, &c. Cic. 
pro Ligario. Aposiopesis, or Concealment, leaves the sense 

incomplete; as, Quos ego sed prcestat motos componere 

fluctus, Virg. 

18. Sententia, {gnome,) a sentiment, is a general maxim 
concerning life or manners, which is expressed in various 
forms ; as, Otium sine Uteris mors est, Seneca. Adeo in tens* 
ris assuescere multum est, Virg. Probitas laudatur fy alget ; 
Miser a est magni, custodia census; Nobilitas sola est atque 
unica virtus, Juv. 



THE QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES. 219 

As most of these figures are used by orators, and some of 
them only in certain parts of their speeches, it will be proper 
that the learner know the parts into which a regular formal 
oration is commonly divided. These are, 1. The Introduction, 
the Exordium or Prozmium, to gain the good-will and atten- 
tion of the hearers : 2. The Narration, or Explication : 3. The 
argumentative part, which includes, Confirmation or proof, 
and Confutation or refuting the objections and arguments of 
an adversary. The sources from which arguments are drawn, 
are called Loci, topics ; and are either intrinsic or extrinsic ; 
common or peculiar. 4* The Peroration, Epilogue, or Con* 
elusion. 

THE QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES. 

The quantity of a syllable is the space of time taken up in 
pronouncing it. 

That part of grammar which treats of the quantity and ac- 
cent of Syllables, and of the measures of verse, is called 
PROSODY. 

Syllables, with respect to their quantity, are either long or 
short. 

A long syllable, in pronouncing, requires double the time 
of a short; as, tender e._ 

Some syllables are common : that is, sometimes long, and 
sometimes short : as the second syllable in volucris. 

A vowel is said to be long or short by nature, which is al- 
ways so by custom, or by the use of the poets. 

In polysyllables or long words, the last syllable except one 
is called the Penultima, or, by contraction, the Penult, and 
the last syllable except two the Antepenultima. 

When the quantity of a syllable is not fixed by some par- 
ticular rule, it is said to be long or short by authority ; that is, 
according to the usage of the poets. Thus le in lego, is said 
to be short by authority, because it is always made short by 
the Latin poets. 

In most Latin words of one or two syllables, according to 
our manner of pronouncing, we can hardly distinguish by the 
ear a long syllable from a short. Thus le in lego and legi ' 
seem to be sounded equally long ; but when we pronounce 
them in composition, the difference is obvious ; thus, perlego, 
perlegi ; relego, -ere ; relego, -are, &c. 

The rules of quantity are either General or special. The 
former apply to all syllables, the latter only to some certain 
syllables. 



220 THE QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES. 

GENERAL RULES. 

I. A vowel before another vowel is short ; as, 

Jtfeus, alius? so nihil; h, in verse, being considered only as 
a breathing. In like manner, in English, create, behave. 

Exc. 1. lis long in fio, fiebam, &c. unless when followed 
by r ; as, fieri, fierem ; thus, 

Omnia jam fient, fieri, quae posse negabam, Ovid. 

Exc. 2. E having an i before and after it, in the fifth de- 
clension, is long ; as, speciei. So is the first syllable in tier, 
dius, eheu, and the penultima in aulai, terrai, &c. in Pompei, 
Cai, and such like words ; but we sometimes find Pompei in 
two syllables, Horat. Od. II. 7. 

Exc. 3. The first syllable in ohe and Diana is common : so 
likewise is the penult of genitives in ius ; as, illius, unius y 
&c. to be read long in prose. Alius, in the genit. is always 
long, as being contracted for aliius ; alterius, short. 

In Greek words, when a vowel comes before another, no 
certain rule concerning its quantity can be given. 

Sometimes it is short ; as, Danae, Idea, Sophia, Symphonia, Simois, Hyades, 
Phaon, Deucalion, Pygmalion, Thebais, &c. 

Often it is long ; as, Lycaon, Maehaon, Didymaon ; Amphion, Arlon, Ixion, 
Pandlon, Nais, Lais, Achaia ; Briseis, Cadmeis ; LalGus, & Latuis, Myrtous, 
JNerei'us, Priameius, Acheloius, Minoi'us; Archelaus, Menelaus, Amphiaraus; 
^Eneas, Peneus, Epeus, Acrisioneus, Adamanteus, Pheebeus, Giganteus; Darius, 
Basirius, Eugenius, Bacchius; Cassiopea, Caesarea, Chseronea, Cytherea, Gala- 
tea, Laodicea, Medea, Panthea, Penelopea; Clio, Enyo, Elegia, Iphigenia, 
Alexandria, Thalia, Antiochia, idololatna, litania, politia, &c. Laertes, Det- 
phobus, Deijanira, TrGes, heroes, &c. 

Sometimes it is common; as, Chorea, Platea, Malea, Nereides, canopeum, 
Orion, Geryon, Eos, eGus, &c. So in foreign words, Michael, Israel, Raphael, 
Abraham, &c. 

The accusative of nouns in eus is usually short ; as, Orphea, Salmonea, Ca* 
phar$a,&,c. but sometimes long; as, Idomenea, Ilionea, Virg. Instead of Ele* 
gla, Cytherea, we find Elegeia, Cytherela, Ovid. But the quantity of Greek 
words cannot be properly understood without the knowledge of Greek ; yet 
the following rules may be useful : 

1. Greek words ending in dis, eis, dis, don, and ton, for the most part lengthen 
the penult. > 

2. Laics ending Greek words makes two syllables, and has 5, long; as, Arche*- 
tails, &c. 

In English, a vowel before another is also sometimes lengthened ; as, science, 
idea. 

II. A vowel before two consonants, or before a 
double* consonant is long (by position, as it is call- 
ed i) as, 

arma, failo, axis, gaza, major; the compounds of jugum ex* 
cepted ; as, bijilgus, quadrijilgus, &c. 

* X, 2, and j, are double consonants ; x sounds like ks or cs; i like d$; and^* nea^ 
iy like d and soft g. 



THE QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES. 221 

When the foregoing word ends in a short vowel, and the following begins 
with two consonants or a double one, that vowel is sometimes lengthened by 
position; as, 

Ferle citi fiammas, date vela, scandite muros, Virg. 

But this rarely becuns. 

IT A vowel ending monosyllables is long ; but enclitics, qui, nt, (interroga- 
tives), also ve, ce, te, and pte, are short : ne, lest, is long. 

All nouns of one syllable ending with a consonant are long; as, jus, mus; 
but all other monosyllabic words ending with a consonant are short ; as, %s f 
quis, &c. 

For exceptions, see final syllables. 

IT A vowel before a mute and a liquid is com- 
mon; 

as the middle syllable in volucris, tenebrce, thus, 

Et primd similis volucri, mox vera volucris. Ovid. 

Nox tenebras, profert Phoebus fugat inde tenebras. Id. 

But in prose these words are pronounced short. So peragro, pharetra, poda- 
gra, ckiragra, Celebris, latebrai, tyc. 

To make this rule hold, three things are requisite. The vowel must be natu- 
rally short, the mute must go before the liquid, and be in the same syllable with 
it. Thus, a in patris is made common in verse, because a in pater is naturally 
short, or always so by custom : but a in matris, acris, is always long, because 
long by nature or custom in mater and acer. In like manner the penult in salu- 
bris, ambulacrum, is always long, because they are derived from salus, salutis, 
and ambuldtum. So a in arte, abluo, &c. is long by position, because the mute 
and the liquid are in different syllables. 

L and r only are considered as liquids in Latin words ; m 

and n do not take place except in Greek words. 

III. A contracted syllable is long ; as, 

Nil for nihil ; mi, for mihi ; cogo, for codgo ; alius, for aliius ; 
tibicen, for tibiicen ; it, for iit ; sodes, for si audes ; nolo, for 
non volo ; bigce, for bijiigce ; scilicet, for scire licet, &c. 

IV. A diphthong is always long ; as, 

Aurum, Ccesar, Eubcea, &c. Only pra, in composition, be- 
fore a vowel is commonly short ; as, prceire, prcsustus ; thus, 

Nee tota tamen ille prior preeeunte carina. Virg. 
Stipitibus duris agitur sudibusque prseustis. Id. * 

But it is sometimes lengthened ; as, 
cum vacuus domino praeiret Arion. Statius. 



In English, we pronounce several of the diphthongs short, by sinking the 
sound of one vowel ; but then there is properly no diphthong. 

SPECIAL RULES. 
I. Concerning the First and Middle Syllables. 
Preterites and Supines of Two Syllables. 

V. Preterites of two syllables lengthen the for- 
mer syllable ; as, Veni, vidi, vici. 

T 2 



222 aXJANTITXT OF THE CREMENT OP NOUNS. 

Except bibi, scidi, from scindo,fidi, from findo, tuli, dedi, 
and steti, which are shortened. 

VI, Supines of two syllables lengthen the for- 
mer syllable ; as, Visum, cdsum, mdlum. 

Except satum, from sero; citum, from cieo ; litum, from 
lino ; situm, from sino ; stdtum, from sisto ; itum, from eo ; 
ddtum^ from do ; rutum, from the compounds of ruo ; quitum, 
from queo ; rdtus, from reor. 

Obs. 1. Also fut. active and perf. passive participles gene- 
rally have the first syllable long ; as, visurus, visus / moturus, 
motus, &c. 

Obs. 2. Supines in iitum, of more syllables than two, 
lengthen the penult ; as, solutum, from solvo. Participles in 
urus lengthen the penult u ; as, ledums. 

Also pollysyllabic supines in itum, from preterites in ivi, 
lengthen the i ; as, petitum, from peto ; but all others in itum, 
(except recensitum,) shorten the penult i; as, monitum, iacu 
turn, from moneo-ui and taceo-ui. 

Preterites which double the First Syllable. 

VII. Preterites which double the first syllable, 
have both the first syllables short ; as, 

Cecidi, tetigi, pepuli, peperi, didici, tutudi : except cecidi, 
from ccedo ; pepedi, from pedo ; and when two consonants in- 
tervene ; &s,fefelli, tetendi, &c. 

INCREASE OF NOUNS. 

A noun is said to increase, when it has more syllables in 
any of the oblique cases than in the nominative ; as, rex, re- 
gis. Here re is called the increase or crement, and so through 
all the other cases. The last syllable is never esteemed a 
crement. 

Some nouns have a double increase, that is, increase by 
more syllables than one ; as, iter, iiineris. 

A noun in the plural is said to increase, w T hen in any case 
it has more syllables than the genitive singular; as, gener, 
generi, generorum ; or nominative plural ; as, sedes, sedibus. 

Nouns of the first, fourth, and fifth declension, do not in- 
crease in the singular number, unless where one vowel comes 
before another ; as, fructus, fructui ; res, rei ; which fall 
under Rule I. 

f In nouns of the second declension singular number, the 






QUANTITY OF THE CREMENT OF NOUftS. 223 

increase is short ; as, gener, generi ; vir, viri ; prosper, pros* 
pera, prosperum, gen. prosperi ; where the nominative, fern- 
and neut., as in all adjectives, having a syllable more than the 
masculine, may be said to increase. 

But Iber, an inhabitant of Iberia, makes Iberi long ; so its 
compound, Celtiber, Celtiberi. 

Third Declension* 

VIII. Nouns of the third declension which in- 
crease, make a and o long ; e, h and u short ; as, 

Pietatis, honoris ; mulieris, lapidis, murmuris. 

The chief exceptions from this rule are marked under the 
formation of the genitive in the third declension. But here, 
perhaps, it may be proper to be more particular. 

A. - 

A noun in A shortens alis in the genitive ; as, dogma, -ahs; poema, -aits. 

o. 

shortens inis, but lengthens enis and onis; as, Cardo,-inis; Virgo, Itnis; 
Anio, -ems; Cicero, -onis. Gentile or patrial nouns vary their quantity. Most 
of them shorten the genitive; as, Macedo, -onis ; Sawo, -onis. Some are long; 
as, Suessiones, VeUbnes. Brittones is common. 

I. C. D. 

1 shortens Ms ; as, Hydromeli, -ttis. Ec lengthens -Ids ; as, Hake, -eas. 
A noun in D shortens the crement ; as, David, -idis. 

L. 

Masculines in AL shorten alis; as, Sal, salis; Hannibal, -atis; HasdrvhaU 
-alis: but neuters lengthen it; as, animal, -alis. £#:*■*»»- rww 

Solis, from sol is long, also Hebrew words in el; as, Michael, -elis. Other 
nouns in L shorten the crement ; as, Virgil, -ilis ; consul, -uhs. 

N. . . 

Nouns in ON vary their crement. Some lengthen it ; as. Helicon, -onis ; Chi- 
ron, -onis. Some shorten it; as, Memnon, -onis; ActcBon, -onis. 

EN shortens inis ; as,flumen, -inis; tibicen, -inis. Other nouns in b lengthen 
the penult. AN anis; as, Titan, -dnis;_En enis; as,£iren, -ems; In mis; as, 
delphin, -Inis; YN ynis; as, Phorcyn, -ynis. 

1. Neuters in AR lengthen art's; as, colcar, -aris. Except the following: &a> 
char, -aris; jubar,-aris; nectar, -aris: Also the adjective par, pans, and its 
compounds, impar, -aris; dispar, -aris, &c. But masculines in ar shorten aris; 
os,Ccesar,C(Esaris;Hamilcar,-aris;lar,ldris. \ 

2. The following nouns in R lengthen the genitive ; Nar, naris, the name of 
a river; fur, Juris; ver,veris: Also Recimer, -ens; Byzer, -ens; Ser, bens; 

, Iber, -Iris, proper names. _ . „ . _ 

3. Greek nouns in TER lengthen tens ; as, crater, -ens ; character, -ens. ex- 
cept cether, -eris. 

- 4. OR lengthens oris; as, amor, -oris. Except neuter nouns; as, marmor, 
-oris ; (Bouor, -oris; Greek nouns in tor; as, Hector, -oris; Actor, -oris; rhetor, 
-oris : Also arbor, -oris and memor, -oris. m 

5. Other nouns in R. shorten the genitive; ER ens of any gender ; as, aer, 
aeris ; mulier, -eris ; cadaver, -eris; iter, anciently ittner, itinens; verbens, Irom 
the obsolete verber. UR uris; as, vultur, -uris; murmur, -uris. YK yns; as, 
Martyr, -yris. 



224 QUANTITY OF THE CREMENT OF NOUNS. 

AS. 

1. Nouns in AS, which have atis, lengthen the crement; as,pietas, -atis; Mm- 
cenas, -atis. Except anas, -atis. 

2. Other nouns in AS shorten the crement ; as, Greek nouns having the geni- 
tive in adis, atis, and anis ; thus, Pallas, -adis : artocreas, -eatis ; Melas, -anis, 
the name of a river. So vas, vadis; mas, maris: But vas, vasis, is long. 

ES. 
ES shortens the crement ; as, miles, -itis ; Ceres, -eris ; pes, pedis. 
Except locuples, -etis; quies, -etis; mansues, -Itis; hares, -idis; merces, -edis. 

IS. 
Nouns in IS shorten the crement ; as, lapis, -idis ; Sanguis, -inis ; Phyllis, 
•idis. 

Except Glis, gUris; and Latin nouns which have Itis; as, lis, Vitis; dis,dtiis; 
Quiris, -Itis ; Samnis, -itis : But Charis, a Greek noun, has, Charitis. 

The following also lengthen the crement; Crenis, -idis; Psophis, -Idis; Ne- 
sis, -Idis, proper names. And Greek nouns in is, w T hich have also in ; as, Said- 
mis, or in, Salaminis. 

OS. 
Nouns in OS lengthen the crement ; as, nepos, -otis ; flos,floris. 
Except Bos, bovis ; compos, -otis ; and impos, -otis. 

US. 

US shortens the crement ; as, tempus, -oris ; tripus, -odis. 
Except nouns which have udis, uris, and utis; as, incus, -udis; jus, juris; 
salus, -utis. But Ligus has Liguris ; the obsolete pecus, pecudis ; and interms* 
•utis. 
The neuter of the comparative has, -oris ; as, melius, -oris. 

YS. 
YS shortens ydis or ydos; as, chlamys, -ydis or -ydos; and lengthens ynis; 
as, Trachys, -ynis. 

BS. PS. MS. 
Nouns in S, with a consonant going before, shorten the penult of the geni- 
tive ; as, coclebs, -ibis ; inops, -opis ; hiems, hiemis. 

Except Cyclops, -bpis; seps, sepis; gryps, gryphis; Cecrops, -opis; plebs, 
plebis ; hydrops, -opis. 

T. 
T shortens the crement; as, caput, -liis ; so occiput, -itis. 
X. 

1. Nouns in X, which have the genitive in gis, shorten the crement; as, con- 
jux, -ugis ; remex, -igis ; Allobrox, -ogis ; Phryx, Phrygis. But lex, legis, and 
rex, regis, are long; and likewise frugis. 

2. Ex shortens ids ; as, vertex, -ids ; except vibex, -Ids. 

3. Other nouns in X lengthen the crement; as, pax, pads; radix, -wis; vox, 
vocis ; lux, lucis ; Pollux, -uds, &c. 

Except fads, neds, vicis, preds, caVicis, ciMds, pids, fornicis, nivis, Cappado- 
cis, duds, nucis, cruds, truds, onychis, Eryds, mastyx, -ychis, the rosin of the 
lentiscus, or mastrich-tree, and many others, whose quantity can only be ascer- 
tained by authority. 

4. Some nouns vary the crement ; as, Syphax, -ads, or -ads ; Sandyx, -tcis, 
or -ids ; Bebryx, -yds, or -yds. 

Increase of the Plural Number. 

IX. Nouns of the plural number which increase* 
make A^ E 9 and 0, long ; but shorten i" and U; 
as, 

Musdrum, rerum, dominorum ; regibus, portiibus : except ba 
bus or bubus, contracted for bovibus, by Syncope. 



QUANTITY OF THE PENULT WORDS. 225 

INCREASE OF VERBS. 

A verb is said to increase, when any part has more sylla- 
bles than the second person singular of the present of the in- 
dicative active ; as, amas, amdmus, where the second syllable 
ma is the increase or crement; for the last syllable is never 
called by that name. 

A verb often increases by several syllables ; as, amas, amd* 
bamini ; in which case it is said to have a first, second, or 
third increase. 

X. In the increase of verbs,a, e, and o, are long; 
i and u short ; as, 

Amdre, docere, amdtote ; legimus, sumus, volumus. 

Tlje poets sometimes shorten dederunt and sieterunt ; and lengthen nmwsand 
rttis,m the future of the subjunctive ; as, transierztis aquas, Ovid. All the other 
exceptions from this rule are marked in the formation of the verb. 

1T But to be more explicit, observe, 

1. Do, with its compounds, shortens the increase da throughout ; as, damns, 
dabunt, dare, circumdamus, -dabunt, &c. But the second crement of do is long, 
by general rule ; as, dabamini. 

2. E is always short in the syllables -beris and -here, -eram, -ero, -mm, through 
every person ; as, amaberis, vel -abere. E before r is also short, in the first cre- 
ment of all the present and imperfect tenses of the third conjugation; as, legl" 
tis, vel -ere, pres. indie, pass. Legerem and Legerer, &c. 

3. J, in the first crement of the fourth conjugation, is long ; as, pres. indie. 
Ventmus : also in velim, sim, malim { nclim, noli, and their compounds ; as, noUto, 
vetilis, MaUtis, Simus, Potsimus, &c. 

All preterites in ivi are long ; as, pefivi, quceswi ; but of the first crement m 
all preterites in tmus, \ is short ; as, ventmusy perf. we are come. In the termi- 
nations rimus and ritis, of the subjunctive, i is common; though, about this* 
prosodians differ. 

The first or middle syllable of words which do not come 
under any of the foregoing rules, are said to be long or short 
by authority ; and their quantity can only be discovered from 
the usage of the poets, which is the most certain of all rules. 

Remarks on the Quantity of the Penult of Words* 

1. Patronymics in IDES or ADES usually shorten the 
penult ; as, Priamides, Atlantiades, &c. Unless they come 
from nouns in eus ; as, Pelides, Tydides, dec. 

2. Patronymics, and similar words in AIS, EIS, ITIS, 
OIS, OTIS, INE, and ONE, commonly lengthen the penult; 
as, Achdis, Ptolemdis, Chryseis, JEneis, Memphitis, Latois, 
Icariotis, Nerine, Arisione, Except Thebais, and Phocdis ; 
and Nereis, which is common. 

3. Adjectives in ACTJS, ICUS, IDUS, and IMUS, for the 
most part shorten the penult ; as, JEgyptiacus, academicus, 
lepidus, legtiimus ; also superlatives ; as, fortissimus^ &c* 



226, PENULT OF PROPER NAMES'. 

Except opticus, amicus, apricus, pudicus, mendicus, posticus, 
fidus, infidus, (but perfidus, of per and fides, is short) 6f- 
mus, quadrimus, patrimus, matrimus, opimus ; and two super- 
latives, imus, primus. 

4. Adjectives in ALIS, ANUS,, ARUS, IVUS, ORUS, 
OSUS, lengthen the penult;, a.$ v dotalis, urbanus, avdrus, as* 
tivus, decorus, arenosus. Except barbdrus, opiparus. 

5. Verbal adjectives in ILIS, shorten the penult ; as, agi- 
lis, facilis, &c. But derivatives from nouns usually lengthen 
it ; as, anilis, civilis, herilis, &c. To these add exilis, subti* 
lis; and names of months, Aprilis, Quinctilis, Sextilis: Ex- 
cept humilis, parilis ; and also similis. But all adjectives in 
atilis are short ; as, versdttlis, volatilis, umbratilis, &c. 

6. Adjectives in INUS, derived from inanimate things, as- 
plants, stones, &c. also from adverbs of time, commonly 
shorten the penult ; as, amaracinus, crocmus, cedrtnus, fag%- 
nus, oleaginus ; adamantinus, cristallmus, crastinus, pristinus, 
perendinus, &c. 

Other adjectives in INUS are long ; as, agninus, austrirms, 
binus, clandestinus, Latinus, marinus, supinus, vespertinus, 
&c. 

7. Diminutives in OLUS, OLA, OLUM; and ULUS, 
ULA, ULUM, always shorten the penult x as, urceolus, filio- 
la, mus&olum ; lectulus, ratiuncula, corculum, &c. 

8. Adverbs in TIM lengthen the penult ; as, oppidatim, vU 
ritim, tributim. Except affatim, perpetim, and statim. 

9. Desideratives in URIO shorten the antepenultima, which, 
in the second or third person is the penult ; as, esurio, esilri8 7 
esurit. But other verbs in urio lengthen that syllable; as, 
ligurio, liguris ; scaturio, scaturis, &c. 

PENULT OF PROPER NAMES. 

The following proper names lengthen the penult: Abdera, Abyd us, Adonis, 
^Esopus, ^Etolus, Abala, Alaricus, Alcides, Amyclae, Andronicus, Anubis, Ar- 
chimedes, Ariarathes, Ariobarzanes, Aristides, Aristobulus, Aristoglton, Arpi- 
num, Artabanus ; Brachmanes, Busiri, Buthrotus ; Cethegus, Chalcedon, Cleo- 
bulus, Cyrene, Cythera, Curetes ; Darici, Demonicus, Diomedes, DiGres, Dios- 
curi; Ebiides, Eriphyle, Eubulus, Euclides, Euphrates, Eumedes, Euripus, 
Euxinus; Garganus, Geetulus, GranTcus; Heliogabalus, Henricus, Heraclides, 
Heraclitus, Hipponax, Hispanus; Irene; Lacydas, Latona, Leucata, Lugdu- 
num, Lycoras, Mandane, MausOlus, Maximinus, Meleager, Messala, Messana, 
Miletus ; Nasica, Nicanor, Nicetas ; Pachynus, Pandora, Peloris, & -us, Phar- 
salus, Phoenice, Polites, Polycletus, Polyniees, Priapus ; Sarpedon, Serapis, Si- 
nOpe, Stratonice, Suffetes ; Tigranes, Thessalonica ; Verona, Veronica. 

The following are short : Amathus, Amphipolis, Anabosis, Anticyra, Antigo- 
nus, & -ne, Antilochus, Antiochus, Antiopa, Antipas, Antipater, Antiphanes, 
Antiphates, Antiphila, Antiphon, Anytus, Apulus, Areopagus, Ariminum, Ar- 
menus, A thesis, Attalus, Attica ; Bitiirix, Bructeri ; Calaber, Callicrates, Callis* 
tratus, Candace, Cantaber, Carneades, Cherilus, ChrysostSraus, Cleombrotus, 
£leom|nes, Corycos, Constajitinopolis, Craterus, Cratylus, Cremera, Crustume- 



THE QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 227 

ri, Cybele, Cyclades, Cyzicus ; Dalmatae, Damocles, Dardanus, Dejoces, Dejo- 
tarus, Democritus, Demipho, Didyraus, Diogenes, Drepanum, Dumnorix; Em- 
pedocles, Ephesus, Evergetes, Eumenes, Eurymedon, Euripylus; Fucinus; Ge- 
ryones, Gyarus ; Hecyra, Heliopolis, Hermione, Herodotus, Hesiodus, Hesione, 
Hippocrates, Hippotamos, Hypata, Hypanis ; Icarus, Icetas, Illyris, Iphitus, Is- 
marus, Ithaca ; Laoclice, Laomedon, Lampsacus, JL.amyrus, Lapithae, Leucre- 
tilis, Libanus, Lipare, v. -a, Lysimachus, Longimanus ; Marathon ; Maenalus, 
Marmarica, Massagetae, Matrona, Megara, Melitus, & -ta, Metropolis, Mutina, 
Mycbnus; Neocles, Neritos, Noricum; Omphale; Patara, Pegasus, Pharna- 
ces, Pisistratus, Polydamas, Polyxena, Porseira, or Porsenna, Praxiteles, Pute- 
oli, Pylades, Pythagoras ; Sarmatae, Sarsma, Semele, Semiramis, Sequani, & 
-a, Seriphos, Sicoris, Socrates, Sodoma, Sotades, Spartacus, Sporades, Strongyle, 
Stymphalus, Sybaris; Taygetus, Telegonus, Telemachus, Tenedos, Tarraco, 
Theophanes, Theophilus, Tomyrus; Urbicus; Veneti, Vologesus, Volusus; 
Xenocrates ; Zoilus, Zopyrus. 

The penult of several words is doubtful ; thus, Batavi, JLucan. Batavi, Juv. 
& Mart. Fortuztus, Horat. Fortuitus, Mart. Some make fortuilus of three 
syllables ; but it may be shortened like gratuztus, Stat. Patriwus, matri.mu&, 
prcsstolor, &c. are by some lengthened, and by some shortened ; but for theft 
quantity, there is no certain authority. 

II. Final Syllables. 
A. 

XI. A in the end of a word declined by cases 
is short ; as, Masd^ templa, Tydea, lampada. 

Exc. The ablative of the first declension is long ; as, Musa, 
JEned : and the vocative of Greek nouns in as ; as, O JEned, 
O Pallet. 

A in the end of a word not declined by cases is 
long ; as, Amd, frustra, prcetered, ergd, intra. 

Exc. ltd, quia, ejd, posted, putd, (adv.) are short ; and 
sometimes, though more rarely, the prepositions contra, ultra, 
and the compounds of ginta ; as, trigintd, &c. Contra, and 
ultra, when adverbs, are always long. 

E. 

XII. E in the end of a word is short ; as* 

Nate, sedile, patre, curre, nempe, ante.] 

Exc. 1. Monosyllables are long; as, me, U, se ; except 
these enclitic conjunctions que, ve, ne ; and these syllabical 
adjections, pte, ce, te ; as, suapte, hujusce, tute ; but these 
may be comprehended under the general rule, as they never 
stand by themselves. 

Exc. 2, Nouns of the first and fifth declension are long ; as, 
Calliope, Anchise, fide. So re, and die, with their compounds 
quare, hodie, pridie, postridie, quotidie. Also Greek nouns 
"which want the singular, Cete, mele, Tempej and the second 



228 THE QUANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 

person singular of the imperative of the second conjugation ; 
as, Doce, mane ; but cave, vale, and vide, are sometimes short. 
Exc. 3. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the first and 
second declension are long ; as, placide, pulchre, valde, con- 
tracted for valide: to these add ferine, fere, and ohe; also all 
adverbs of the superlative degree ; as, doctissime, fortissime : 
but bene and male are short. 

I. 

XIII. I final is long ; as, Domini, patri, doceru 
Exc. 1. Greek vocatives are short ; as, Alexi, AmarylU. 
Exc. 2. The dative of Greek nouns of the third declension 

which increase, is common ; as, Palladi, Minoidi. 

Mihi, tibi, sibi, are also common : so likewise are ibi, nisi, 
ubi, quasi; and cui, when a dissyllable, which in poetry is 
seldom the case. Sicubi and necubi are always short. 

O. 

XIV. O final is common ; as, Virgo, Amo, quart- 
do. 

Exc. 1. Monosyllables in o are long; as, o, do, sto, pro. 
The dative and ablative sing, of the second declension is long ; 
as, libro, domino : also Greek nouns ; as, Dido, and Atho, the 
genit. of Athos, and adverbs derived from nouns ; as, certo, 
falso, paulo. To these add quo, eo, and their compounds, 
quovis, quocunque, adeb, ideo ; likewise, Hid, idcirco, citro, in* 
tro, retro, ultro. 

Exc. 2. The following words are short : Ego, scio, cedo, a 
defective verb, homo, cito, illico, immo, duo, ambo, modo, with 
its compounds, quomodo, dummodo, postmodo ; but some of 
these are also found long. 

Exc. 3. The gerund in DO in Virgil is long ; in other poets 
it is short. Ergo, on account of, is long ; ergo, therefore, is 
doubtful. 

tf and Y. 

XV. U final is long; Y final is short ; as, 

Vultu: Moly. 

B, D, L, M, R, T. 

XVI. B, D, L, M, R, and T, in the end of a 

word, are short ; as, 

Ab, apiid, semel, precdr, caput. 






THE aTJANTITY OF FINAL SYLLABLES. 229 

The following words are long : sal, sol, nil ; 'par, and its 
compounds, impar, dispar, &c. ; far, lar, Nar, cur,fitr ; also 
nouns in er which have eris in the genitive ; as, Crater, ver, 
Iber; likewise aer, cether; to which add Hebrew names; as, 
Job, Daniel, David. 

Also T is long in It or At, of the perfect tense, contracted 
from Ivit, lit, or avit ; as, sublt, petit, it, &c. 

M final anciently made the foregoing vowel short; as, Militum octo, Ennius. 
But by later poets, m, in the end of a word, is always cut off, when the next 
word begins with a vowel; thus, MM? octo; except in compound words; as, 
circumago, circumeo. 

C, N. 

XVII. C and N, in the end of a word, are 
long; as, 

Ac, sic, nan. So Greek nouns in n ; as, Titan, Siren, Sa- 
lamln ; JEaiean, Anchisen, Circen ; Lacedcemon, &c. 

The following words are short : nee and donee ; forsitan, 
in, forsdn, tamen, an, viden ; likewise nouns in en, which 
have mis in the genitive ; as, crimen, criminis, pecten, tibicen ; 
also in on, of Greek nouns of the second declension sing, 
written with an Omicron ; as, llion, Pylon, Pelion : likewise 
in all Greek accusatives coming from nominatives, whose final 
syllable is short ; as, Alexin, Thetin, Ityn, Parin, Ma'idn, Me- 
nelaon ; and Greek dative plurals in -sin ; as, Arcasin. 

The pronoun hie, and the Yexbfac, are common. 

AS, ES, OS. 

XVIII. AS, ES, and OS, in the end of a word, 
are long ; as, 

Mas, quies, bonds. 

The following words are shorty anas, es, from sum and pe- 
nes ;* os, having osis in the genitive, compos, and impos; also 
a great many Greek nouns of all these three terminations ; as, 
Areas, and Arcddds, herods, Phryges, Arcados, Tenedos, 
Melos, &c. and Latin nouns in es, having the penult of the 
genitive increasing short ; as, Ales, hebes, obses. But Ceres, 
paries, aries, abies, and pes, with its compounds, are long. 

IS, US, YS. 

XIX. IS, US, and YS, in the end of a word, 
are short ; as, 

Turris, legis, legimus, annus, Capys. 

* So es, in the compounds of sumj present tense; as, Potes, Ades, Prodis, Sec: but 
es, from Ido, to eat, is long. \. 

u x 



230 



THE QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVES. 



Exc. 1. Plural cases in is and us are long ; as, Pennis, U- 
bris, nobis, omnis for omnes, fructus, nanus : also the geni- 
tive singular of the fourth declension ; as, portus. But bus 
in the dat. and abl. plur. is short ; as, Jloribus, fructibus, 
rebus. 

Exc. 2. Nouns in is are long, which have the genitive in 
itis, mis, or entis : as, Us, Samnis,, Salamis, Simois. To these 
add the adverbs gratis and foris; the noun glis and vis, 
whether it be a noun or a verb ; also is, in the second person 
singular, when the plural has Itis ; as, audis, adis, possis. Ris 
in the future of the subjunctive is common. 

Exc. 3. Monosyllables in us are long ; as, grus, sus : also 
nouns which, in the genitive, have uris, udis, utis, untis, or 
odis; as, tellus, incus, virtus, amdthus, tripus. To these add 
the genitive of Greek nouns of the third declension ; as, Clius, 
Sapphus, Mantus ; also nouns which have u in the vocative ; 
as, Panthus, Iesus. 

Exc. 4. Tethys is sometimes long, and nouns in ys, which 
have likewise yn in the nominative ; as, Phorcys, Trachys. 

IF The last syllable of every verse is common ; 

Or, as some think, necessarily long, on account of the 
pause or suspension of the voice, which usually follows it in 
pronunciation. 



THE QUANTITY OF DERIVATIVE AND COMPOUND 
WORDS. 

, 1. Derivatives. 

XX. Derivatives follow 
primitives; as, 



the quantity of their 



Amicus, from 

Auctionor, 

Auctoro, 

Auditor, 

Auspicor, 

Cauponor, 

Competitor, 

Cornicor, 

Custodio, 

Decorus, 



amo. 

auctio, -onis, 
auctor, -oris, 
auditum, 
auspex, -icis. 
caupo, -onis. 
competitum. 
cornix, -icis. 
custos, -odis. 
decor, -oris. 



Decoro, from 

Exiilo, 

Pavidus, 

Quirito, 

Radicitus, 

Sospito, 

Natura, 

Maternus, 

Legebam, &c. 

Legeram, &c 



decus, -oris, 
exul, -ulis. 
paveo. 
qui ris, -itis. 
radix, -Icis. 
Sospes, -itis. 
natus. 
mater, 
lego, 
legi. 



Deni, from decern. 
Fomes, foveo. 
Humanus, homo. 
Regula, rego. 



Exceptions. 

I. Long from Short, 
SuspTcio, from suspTcor. 
Sedes, sedeo. 

Secius, secus. 

Penuria, penus, 



Mobilis, from moveo. 
Humor, Mmus. 

Jumentum, juvo. 
Vox, vocis, voco, &c> 



THE QUANTITY OF COMPOUNDS. 231 

2. Short from Long. 

Arena and arista, from areo. Liicerna, from luceo. 

NSta and noto, ' notus. Dux, diicis, duco. 

Vadum vado. Stabilis, stabam. 

Fides, ' fido. Ditio, dis, dljis. 

Sopor, sSpio. Quasillus, : qualus, &c 

XXI. Compounds follow the quantity of the sim- 
ple words which compose them ; as, 

Deduco, of de and duco. So profero, antefero, consolor, de- 
note-, depeculor, depravo, despero, despumo, desquamo, enodo, 
erudio, exildo, exdro, expaveo, incero, inhumo,Anvestigo, pra>- 
grdvo, prcmato, regelo, apparo,appareo, concavus, prcegravis, 
desolo, suffoco, & suffoco, diffidit from diffindo, and diffidit 
from diffido, indico and indico, permdnet, from permdneo, and 
permdnet, from permdno, effodit, in the present, and effodit in 
the perfect; so exedit and exedit; devenit and devenit j deve- 
nimus, and devenimus ; reperimus and reperimus ; effiigit and 
effugit, &c. 

The change of a vowel or diphthong in the compound does 
not alter the quantity; as, incido, from in and cado; incido, 
from in and ccedo ; suffoco, from sub and faux,faucis. Unless 
the letter following make it fall under some general rule ; as, 
ddmitto, per cello, deosculor, prohibeo. 

Exc. 1. Agnitum, cognitum, dejero, pejero, innuba, pronii- 
£a, maledicus, verid/icus, nihilum, semisoplius; from notus, 
jitro, nubo, dlco, hllum, and sopio : ambitus, a participle, from 
ambio, is long ; but the substantives ambitus and ambitio are 
short. Connubium has the second syllable common. 

Exc. 2. The preposition PRO is short in the following 
words : profundus, prbfugio, prbfugus, pronepos, proneptis, 
prbfestus, prbfari, profiteor, prof anus, prbfecto, procella, pro? 
tervus, and propdgo, a lineage, pro in propdgo, a vine-stock, 
or shoot, is long. Pro, in the following words, is doubtful : 
propago, to propagate ; proplno, profundo, propello, propulso, 
procuro, and Proserpina. Pro is also short in Greek words ; 
as, Prometheus, propheta, Propontis ; but in Latin words, 
though often short as above, yet we most frequently find it 
long ; as, proveho, promitto, 

Exc. 3. The inseparable prepositions SE and DI are long ; 
as, sepdro, divello : except dirimo, disertus. Re is short ; as ? 
remitto, referro : except in the impersonal verb refert, com- 
pounded of res aii&fero. 

Exc. 4. E, I, O, in the end of the former compounding 
word are usually shortened ; as, trecenti, nefas, neque, patefa- 
cio, &c. Capricornus, omnipotens, agricola, signffico^ bifor- 
tyis, aliger, Trivia, tubicen, &c, duodecim, hodie, sacrosano 



232 



ACCENT. 



ties, &c. But from each of these there are many exceptions. 
Thus i is long when it is varied by cases ; as, quidam, quivis, 
tantidem, eidem, &c. And when the compounding words may 
be taken separately ; as, ludimagister, lucrifacio, siquis, &c. 
Also i is long in compounds contracted; as, scilicet, for scire 
licet; Ugm, quadriga, &c. ; and in the compounds of dies; 
as, pridie, postridie,triduum, meridies, and others : but quotU 
die is doubtful. Idem, in the masc. is long, in the neuter 
short ; also ubiaue, ibidem. But in ubivis and ubicunque, the 
i is doubtful. 

O is long in the first part of a compound Greek derived 
word ending in o-mega ; as, Minotaurus, Gebgraphus ; it is 
also long in the end of the first part of words compounded 
with contro, intro, retro, and quando, {quandoquidem except- 
ed) ; as, intromitto, &c. It is also long in alioqui, ceteroqui, 
and utrobique. 

E is also long in the end of the first part of the following 
compounds : nequam, nemo, nequitia, nequaquam, nequicquam, 
nequando, sedecim, memet, mecum, tecum, secum, vecors, w- 
sanus, videlicet. 

U, in the end of the first part of the compound, is short ; 
as, ducenti, quadrupes ; and y also, in Greek compounds ; as, 
Polydamus, Polyphemus, Polyphus. 

A, in the end of the first part of a Latin compound, is long; 
as, qudre, trano, traduco : but sometimes short ; as, hexame- 
ter, catapulta. 

ACCENT. 

Accent is the tone of the voice with which a syllable is pro- 
nounced. 

In every word of two or more syllables, one syllable is 
sounded higher than the rest, to prevent monotony, or an uni- 
formity of sound, which is disagreeable to the ear. 

When accent is considered with respect to the sense, or 
when a particular stress is laid upon any word, on account of 
the meaning, it is called Emphasis. 

There are three accents, distinguished by their different 
sounds ; acute, grave, and circumflex. 

1. "The acute or sharp accent raises the voice in pronun- 
ciation, and is thus marked [ ' ] ; as, profero, profer. 

2. The grave or base accent depresses the voice, or keeps 
it in its natural tone; and is thus marked [ ]; as, docti. 
This accent properly belongs to all syllables which have no 
other. 



VERSE. 233 

The circumflex accent first raises and then sinks the voice 
in some degree on the same syllable, and is therefore placed 
only upon long syllables.* When written, it has this mark, 
made up of the two former [ A ] ; as, amare. 

1T Accents being invented to mark the tone and inflexions 
of the voice, are no sign of the quantity of syllables, and are 
thus applied to the Latin vowels. 

1. Dissyllables have the first syllable accented, whatever be 
its quantity ; as, deos, arte, pejus, fyc. 

2. Trisyllables, if the penult be short, have the antepenult 
accented ; but if the penult be long in quantity, that has the 
accent ; as, cdedere, homines, Romdnis. 

3. No syllable is accented further back than the antepenult ; 
and in words of two or more syllables, the last syllable is 
never accented. 

The accents are hardly ever marked in English books, except in dictionaries, 
grammars, spelling-books, or the like, where the acute accent only is used. 

The accents are likewise seldom marked in Latin books, unless for the sake 
of distinction; as in these adverbs aliquo, continuo, docte, una, &c. to distinguish 
them from certain cases of adjectives, which are spelt in the same way. So 
poeta, gloria, in the ablative : fructus, lumulius, in the genitive : nostrum, ves- 
trum, the genitive of nos and vos: ergo, on account of; occidit, he slew; Pom- 
pili, for Pompilii ,* amaris, for amaveris, &c. 

VERSE. 

A verse is a certain number of long and short syllables, disposed 
according to rule. 

It is so called, because when the number of syllables requisite is 
completed, we always turn back to the beginning of a new line. 

The parts into which we divide a verse, to see if it have its just 
number of syllables, are called Feet. 

A verse is divided into different feet, rather to ascertain its mea- 
sure, or number of syllables, than to regulate its pronunciation. 

FEET. 

Poetic feet are either of two, three, or four syllables. When a 
single syllable is taken by itself, it is Called a Ccesura, which is com- 
monly a long syllable. 



1. Feet of two , _ 
Spondeus, consists of two long ; as, omnes. 
Phyrrichius, two short ; as, deus. 

Iambus, a short and a long ; as, amans, 

Trochceus, a long and a short ; as, servils. 

2. Feet of three syllables, 
Dactylus, consists of a long and two short ; as, scribere. 
Anapastus, two short and a long ; as. pietds. 

* But monosyllables only long by position take the acute; as, fax. So dissylla- 
bles generally take the acute on the penultimate ; as, parens; and also do poJysylla* 
«*>■■$ with a Jong penult ; as, partntes, Jlrdzis, &c. 

v2 



234 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE. 



a long, a short, and a long ; as, chdrUas. 
three short ; as, dominus. 



Amphimacer, 
Tribrachys, 

IT Spondee comes from the Greek Sponde, a libation, having been 
used at sacrifices, on account of its majestic gravity. 

Phyrrichius is from the Greek Pyrrike, a dance of armed men, 
invented by Pyrrhus. 

Iambus is from Iambe, a young woman, the author of it; or from 
the Greek Iapto, to curse ; as it was a foot used in invectives 

Trochee, from the Greek trechein, to run. It is also called Cho- 
ree, from Chorus, a company of dancers. 

Dactyle, from the Greek Daktulos, a finger, because in number 
and length its syllables agree with the number and length of the fin- 
ger joints. & 

Anapaest, from the Greek verb anapaio, to invert or strike back 
because it is a dactyle inverted. 

Amphimacer, from the Greek Amphi, on both sides, and makros, 
long. 

Tribrachys comes from the Greek treis, three, and brachus, short/ 
as it contams three short syllables. 

Choriambus is so called because it is made up of the two feet Cho- 
ree and Iambus, as, historue. 

The following feet are not so much used: 
Molossus, delectdnt. Antispastus, 

Amphibrachys, honore. 

Bacchius, " dolores. 

Antibacchius, pelluntur. 

3. Feel of four syllables. 

Proceleusmaticus, Iwmtnzbus. 

Dispondeus, ordtores. 

Dijambus, amamitds. 

Choriambus, ponUficls. 

Ditrochaeus, cantilena. 



Ionicus major, 
Ionicus minor, 
Paeon primus, 
Paeon sec and us, 
Paeon tertius, 
Paeon quartus, 
Epitritus primus, 
Epitritus secundus, 
Epitritus tertius, 
Epitritus quartus, 



Alexander. 

cdlcdUbus. 

properdbdnt 

temporibus. 

potenda. 

antmdtus. 

celerilds. 



pamitenles. 
discoridds. 
fortundtus. 



SCANNING. 



The measuring of verse, or the resolving of it into the several feet 
or which it is composed, is called Scanning, from scansio, a climb- 
ing up, as if by means of these feet, step by step. 

in^} eXi € Xe T £ ES j , USt y the n 7 U ? lber of feet ^q^ite, it is called Versus Aca- 
^lus, from the Greek almta aleklos, non desinens, not stopping short: if a svl- 
i a u e K be ^ antmg ' -r'u Cal l ed Cat *! ect "™> from kalalektos, seeming to stop, or 
halt by the way: if there be a syllable too much, Hypermeter or Hypercatalecti- 
cus, from huperkataleklos, signifying more than its just measure. 

The ascertaining whether the verse be complete, defective, or redundant, is 
called Dispositio, or Clausula. ' 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE. 

1. HEXAMETER. 
The Hexameter, (from the Greek hex, six, and metron, measure), 
or heroic verse, consists of six feet. Of these the fifth is a dactyle, 
and the sixth a spondee ; all the rest may be either dactyles or spon- 
u.ees i aSf 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE. 235 

Ludere I quae vel- | lem cala- i mo per- 1 misft a- | gresti. Virg. 
Infan- | dum Re- 1 gina, ju- | bes reno- | vare do- | lorem. Id. 

A regular Hexameter line cannot have more than seventeen syl- 
lables, or fewer than thirteen. 

Sometimes a spondee is found in the fifth place, whence the verse 
is called Spondaic ; as, 
Cara De- | urn sobo- | les ma- | gniim Jovis | Incre- | mentum. Virg. 

This verse is used when any thing grave, slow, large, sad, or the 
like, is expressed. It commonly has a dactyle in the fourth place, 
and'a word of four syllables in the end. 

Sometimes there remains a superfluous syllable at the end. But this syllable 
m.rt e! h™ ^ terminated a vowel, or in the consonant m, with a vowel before 
ITso * ^ to be jS with the following verse, which, in the present case, must 
always begin with a vowel ; as, ^ ^ _ 

Omnia | Mercun- | 5 si'mi- | lis vo- | cemque co- | loremque 

Et flavos crines 6 

Those Hexameter verses sound best, which have dactyles and 
spondees alternately ; as, 

Ludere quas vellem calamo permisit agresti. Virg. 
Pinguis et ingratas premeretur caseus urbi. Id. 

Or which have more dactyles than spondees; as, 

Tityre tu patulae recubans sub tegmine fegi. 
Tt is esteemed a great beauty in an Hexameter verse, when, by the 
use of dactyks and spondees, the sound is adapted to the sense ; as, 
Quadrupedante putrem sonitu quatit ungula campum. lirg. 

Accipiunt inimicum imbrem, nmisque fatiscunt. Id. 
But what deserves particular attention in scanning Hexameter 
vpr=« is the CAESURA, from cadere, to cut. 

Srfis when, after a foot is completed, there remains a sylla- 
ble at the end of a word to begin a new foot ; as, 
At re-gina gra-vi jam-dudum, &c 
The Cmsura is variously named, according to the different parts 
of the Hexameter verse in which it is found. When it comes after 
Se first footer falls on the third half-foot, it is called by a Greek 
name Triemimeris : when on the fifth half-foot, or the syllable after 
Ae second foot, it is called Penthemimeris : when it happens on he 
fir!t sXble of the fourth foot, or the seventh half-foot, it 13 called 
AfpSleris: and when on the ninth half-foot, or the first sylla- 
ble of the fifth foot, it is called Enneemimeris. 

These names are from the Greek words hermseus, a half ; mens, 
a rart and The appropriate numerals, treis, three ; pente, five ; hep- 
LTev'enT^ a ?nine; as Triernmimeris is from tre lS , hermseus, 

^ilHhtse dlrenf'spedes of the Ctesura sometimes occur in the 
same verse; as, 

Ille la-tus mve-&m mol-H ful-tus hya-cintho. Virg. 

But the most common and beautiful Ctesura is the penthemim, on 



238 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE. 

which some lay a particular accent or stress of the voice in reading 
an hexameter verse thus composed, whence they call it the Casural 
pause; as, -* '"' 

Tityre dum rede- 0, brevis est via, pasce capellas. Virg. 
When the Cmsura falls on a syllable naturally short, it renders it 
long; as the las syllable of fultus in the foregoing example, 
n Jif™ 7 mehd yf an hexameter verse in a great measure de- 
pends on the proper disposition of the Casura. Without this, a line 
consistmg of the number of feet requisite, will be little else than 
mere prose ; as, 

ROmae moenia terriut impiger Hannibal armls. Ennius. 

m Ji!f an ^ nt Roman f' in pronouncing verse, paid a particular attention to ii« 
S! t y ' t T' ie l n °fS- n,y 0bserved lhe q^ntily and accent of tL severa"svlk 
vlrse Ml r°J he T J,ffe T t St0pS and P auses ™ hieh the Particular turn of tht 
veise required. In modern times we do not fully perceive the melody of Latin 

™„!i \f aUSe We haVe " 0W ,ost the J ust Pronunciation of that language the 
n&iJZnVZV ^r 0UUC ' mg U > a manner similar ,0 SS In 
ffi^i^SpTS ES&re 3 " d,reC ' ed ^ lhe Same rUl6S Which take 
»Zi. e i. "^ ! 1 " 6 VOice ought t0 be chiefl y regulated by the sense All the 
r± Sh0U i a b y> r0n0UnCed f«Hy; and the cadence of the voice ought only to 
be observed so far as it corresponds with the natural expression of fhe word? 
. At the end of each line there should be no fall of the voice, unle's the sensl' 
requires ,t; but a small pause, half of that which we usually maktat a conS 

11 Practical Rides for reading Hexameters. 

fiit" T !lf f i rst and tu ;° last s y«ables of the verse, or line, are long- because the 

2 The^fla P s a thn[, adaCty \° rSp0n ? ee ' and the two last ™ke a sendee 

two ll^ble^a d^T ** ^T M Sp ° nUaiCS ' beCaaSe ^ ™ ^ 

o/a Jactylf b '" f ° Ur ' U " leSS in a Sp ° adak line - is lon S- beca ^ it is the first 

lont. A as Sy h ab i e c^^ f e h» l tW ° l0 " S °T* 0r before or after Uv0 short °w* » 

Th'„ a ihi If a ? e , leSS 0r l mc "' e than two sh °rt syllables together, 
of™ nn int d fcS f " OW t tbe f q " amity °f many syllables witlant the labor 
oi scanning, and lor other sorts of verse, appropriate rules of like natere will 

SfrfSLI" 888 '.. ,h t mSe!ves . , ° '^eriminating P mi^ds The quanHy of syfiables 
™ Tf ? XaCtly the TV e in La"'" P rose as in verse ; therefore l»t no SI 
spared to learn to read both well, according to quantify P 

2. PENTAMETER, 

vZ^Z^™?* Ve T ( &0 Z. Greek P enta ' five > ^d metron, mea- 
sure) consists of five feet Of these, the two first are either, dac- 
tyles or spondees; the third always a spondee; and the fourth and 
nrtn an anapasstus ; as, 

Carmim- | bus vi- J ves tern- J pGs in Gm- | ne mcls. Ovid. 
But this verse is more properly divided into two hemisticks or 
halves; the former of which consists of two feet, either dactyles or 
spondees, and a caesura; the latter, always of two dactyles and an- 
other caesura ; thus, 

JP^J J« f qui- | tur | seraina | qulsque sii- I ». 
Carmim- | bus vi- | ves | tempus in | omne me | is. 

^iiTii e Xur llyendswith a dissyiiabie ' but I"* 6 ** 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE. 237 

3. ASCLEPIADEAN. 

The Asclepiadean verse, so called from Asclepias, the inventor, 
consists of four feet; namely, a spondee, twice a choriambus, and a 
pyrrhichius; as, 

Maece- | nas atavis | edite re- | gibus. Hot. 

But this verse may be more properly measured thus ; in the first 
place, a spondee ; in the second, a dactyle; then a caesura; and after 
that two dactyles ; thus, 

Maece- | nas ata- | vis | edite | regibus. 

4. GLYCONIAN. 

The Glyconian verse, so called from Glycon, has three feet; a 
spondee, choriambus, and pyrrhichius; as, 
Navis | quae tibi ere- | ditum. Horat. 
Or, it may be divided into a spondee and two dactyles; thus, 
Navis | quae tibi | creditum. 

5. SAPPHIC and ADONIAN. 

The Sapphic verse, so called from Sappho, the inventress, has five 
feet; viz. a trochee, spondee, dactyle, and two trochees; thus, 
Inte- | ger vi- | tae, scele- | risque | puriis. Horat. 
An Adonian verse, so Galled from Adorn, consists only of a dactyle 
and spondee; as, 

Jupiter | urget. Horat. 

6. PHERECRATIAN. V 
The Pherecratian verse,lrom Pherecrates, the inventor, consists 
of three feet, a spondee, dactyle, and spondee ; thus, 
Nlgris | eequora | ventis. Horat. 

7. PHALEUCIAN. 
The Phaleucian verse, so called from the inventor, Phalaikos, 
consists of five feet; namely, a spondee, a dactyle, and three too- 
chees * as 

Summam | nee metu- | as di- | em, nee | optes. Martial. 

8. The GREATER ALCAIC. 
The Greater Alcaic, called likewise Dactylic, is so named from 
• the hiventor, Alcaus, and consists of four feet, spondee or iambus, 
iambus, and csesura, then two dactyles : as, 

Virtus | repul- | sae | nescia | sordidae. Horat. 

9. ARCHILOCHIAN. 

The ArchHochian iambic verse is so called [ from^rc^Zocto and 
coi^s of four feet. In the first and third place, it has either a 



238 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE. 

spondee or iambus; in the second and fourth, always an iambus- and 
m the end, a caesura ; as, ' 

Nee su- 1 mit, aut | ponit | secu- 1 res. Horat 

10. The LESSER ALCAIC. 

The Lesser Dactylic Alcaic consists of four feet; namely, two 
dactyles and two trochees; as, «u«y, iwo 

Arbitri- 1 popu- 1 larls | aura. Horat. 

Thus, of the above, kinds of verse, the two first take their names 
from the number of feet of which they consist; the rest fro™se 
by whom they were either first invented or frequently used 

feefhftwhir ° ther "P nds ° f Verse ' which are ^d from the 
tvhc L^t 7 m ^™™**y measured; such as the dac" 

qSnCuteT' P ' ^ iamblC - The last of these is m <** fre- 
11. IAMBIC. 

ree? f andtilfe r fh^ e r "? tW ° ^ The one insists of four 
4eet, and is called by a Greek name, Dimeter'; the other consists of 
bik feet and ,s called Trimeter. The reason of these nameTif that 
among the Greeks, two feet were considered only as one measure h, 
iambic verse; whereas the Latins measured it by single feet, and 

fefj,T CE ?v d t he , d T ter «****■*»* and the trimeter JnS 
Originally, this kind of yerse was purely iambic, i. e. admitted of 
no other feet but the iambus ; thus, 

Dimeter, Inar- | sift se-- 1 stuo- | sius. Horat 

Trimeter, Suis | et I- 1 psa Ro- 1 ma vl- | ribus | rult. Id. 

But afterwards both for the sake of ease and variety, different feet 
were admitted into the uneven or odd places; that is in the ifiL 
tod and fifth places, instead of an iambus, they used a sendee a 
dactyle, or an anapsstus, and sometimes a tribrachys. We dso find 

wW™^ he /; en Pkces ' L e - in the second P^ce, and in the 
fourth : for the last foot must always be an iambus ; thus^ 

Dimeter, CanJdi- | a trac- 1 tavlt | dapes. Horat 
Vide- | re prope- | rantesj domum. Id. 

Trimeter, QuOqnO | sceles-J ti ru>- | t& afit | curdex- I le'rls. Id. 

lV,l d ™J ? ue , le Po- 1/ aut ad- I'venam | lkqueo I grtem Id 
Ahti- 1 bus at- | que can,"- | bus hbml- | eld' Hec- 1 tlrSm 

• J " c i )mic , writers we sometimes find an iambic verse consist;™ nf 
eight feet, therefore called Tetrameter or Octonariul. ° 0nSIStlng of 

FIGURES IN SCANNING. 

a J^liTI^ 1 chan ? es made upon words to adapt them to the verse 
are called Figures in Scanning. The chief of these aretheS 
topha, Eeihhpsu, Syndesis, Diesis, Systole, and DilsWU ?T 



FIGURES IN SCANNING. 239 

Conticuere omnes, intentique ora tenebant Virg. 

to be scanned thus, ^ 

Conticu- 1 er' 5m- | nes In- | tenti- | qu' ora te- | nebant. 
The Synalazpha is sometimes neglected, and seldom takes place 
in the interjections, 6, heu, ah, proh, v<b, vah, hei: as, 
O pater, 6 hominum, Divumque aeterna potestas. Virg, 
Long vowels and diphthongs, when not cut off, are sometimes 

shortened; as, 

Insulae Ionio in magno, quas dira Celaeno. V^g- 
Credimus ? an, qui amant, ipsi sibi somma nngunt. Id. 
Victor apud rapid um Simoenta sub Iho alto. 
Ter sunt conati imponere Pelio Ossam. 
Glauco et Panopeae, et Inoo Melicertae. 

2 Ecthlipsis, derived from the Greek ekthlibein, to break and 
bruise, is when m is cut off, with the vowel before it m the end of a 
word, because the following word begins with a vowel : as, 
O curas hominum ! O quantum est in rebus inane ! Pers. 

thUS ' O cu- 1 ras homi- | n', o quan- | t' est in | rebus in- | ane. 

Sometimes the Synalcepha, and Ecthlipsis, are found at the end of 
a verse ; as, 

Sternitur infelix alieno vvilnere, ccelumque 

Adspicit, et dulces moriens remimscitur Argos. Virg. 

Jamque iter emensi, turres ac tecta Latinorum 

Ardua cernebant juvenes, murosque subibant. Id. 

These verses are called Hypermetri, because a syllable remains 
to be carried to the beginning of the next line; thus, qu Adspicit; 
r' Ardua. 

3. Syndesis, from the Greek sunairec s to draw into one is Ohe 
contraction of two syllables into one, which is likewise called Cm- 
sis ; as, PhcBthon, for Phaethon. So ei in Thesei, Orphei, demde, 
Pompei; vi, in huic, cui; 6i, in proinde ; ea, waurea; thus, 

Notus amor Phaedrae, nota est injuria Thesei. Ovid. 

Proinde tona eloquio, solitum tibi— Virg. 

Filius huic contra, torquet qui sidera mundi. Id. 

Aurea percussum virga, versumque venenis. Id. 

So in antehac, eadem, alvearia, deest, deerit, vehemens, anteit, 
eadenh alveo, graveolentis, omnia, semiantmis, semihomo, Jluwo- 
rum, totius, promontorium, &c. ; as, 

Una eademque via sanguisque animusque ferentur. Virg. 

Seu lento fuerint alvearia vimine texta. Id. 

Vilis amicorum est annona, bonis ubi quid deest._ Hon 

Divitis.uber agri. Troiaeque opulentia deent. Virg. 

Vehemens et liquidus puroque similhmus amni. Hor. 

Te semper anteit dira necessitas. Alcaic. Hor. 

Uno eodemque igni, sic nostro Daphnis amore. Virg. 

Cum refluit campis, & jam se condidit alyeo. Id. 

Inde ubi venere ad fauces graveolentis Averni. id. 

Bis patriae cecidere manus : quin protinus omnia. Id. 

Caedit semianimus Rutulorum calcibus arva. Id. 

Semihominis Caci fades quam dira tenebat. id. 



240 FIGtJRES IN SCANNING. 

Fluviorum rex Eridanus, camposque per omnes. Id. 
Magnanimosque duces, totiusque ex ordine gentis. Id. 
Inde legit Capreas, promontoriumque Minervae._ Ovid. 

To this figure may be referred the changing of i and u intoj and 
v, or pronouncing them in the same syllable with the following 
vowel ; as in genva, tenvis ; arjetat, tenvia, abjete, pitvita ; parjetU 
has, Nasidjenus ; for genua, tenuis, &c. ; as, ' 

Propterea qui corpus aquae naturaque tenvis. Lucr. 

Genva labant, gelido concrevit frigore sanguis. Virg, 

Arjetat in portas & duros objice postes. Id. 

Velleraque vi foliis depectant tenvia Seres. Id. 

uEdificant, sectaque intexunt abjete costas. Id. 

Praecipue sanus, nisi cum pitvita molesta est. Hor. 

Parjetibusque premunt arctis, & quatuor addunt. Virg. 

Ut Nasidjeni juvit te coena beati? Hor. 

4. Diaeresis, from the Greek diaireo, to divide, divides one sylla- 
ble into two ; as, auldi, for aula ; Troice, for Trojce ; Perseus, for 
Perseus ; miluus, for milvus ; solilit, for solvit ; voluit, for volvit ; 
aqua, suetus, suasit, suevos, relanguit, reliquas, for aquce, suetus, 
&c. as, 

Aulai in medio libabant pocnla Bacchi. Virg. 
Stamina non ulli dissoliienda Deo. Pentam. Tibidlus. 
Debuerant fusos evoluisse suos. Id. Ovid. 
Qua? calidum faciunt aqiiae tactum atque vaporem. Lucr. 
Cum mihi non tan turn furesque fer33que siietse. Moral. 
Atque alios alii inridant, Veneremque suadent. Lucr. 
Fundat ab extremo flavos Aquilone Siievos. Lucan. 
Imposito fratri moribunda relanguit ore. Ovid. 
Reliquas tamen esse vias in mente patenteis. Lucr. 

5. Systole, from the Greek sustellein, to contract, is when a long 
syllable is made short; as the penult in tulerunt; thus, 

Matri longa decern tulerunt, fastidia menses. Virg. 

. 6. Diastole, from the Greek diastellein, to lengthen, is when a 
syllable usually short is made long ; as the last syllable in amor, in 
the following verse : 

Considant, sitantus amGr, et moenia condant. Virg. 
To these may be subjoined the Figures of Diction, as they are* 
called, which are chiefly used by the poets, though some of them 
likewise frequently occur in prose. 

1. When a letter or syllable is added to the beginning of a word, 
it is called Prosthesis;* as, gnavus, for navus ; tetuli, for tuli. 
When a letter or syllable is interposed in the middle of a word, it is 
called Epenthesis ;f as, relligio, for religio ; induperator, for im~ 
perator. When a letter or syllable is added to the end, it is called 
Paragoge ; \ as, dicier, for did. 

2. If a letter or syllable be taken from the beginning of a Avord, 
it is called Aph^eresIs ;§ as, natus, for gnatus ; tender ant, for te- 
tenderant If from the middle of a word, it is called Syncope ;|| as, 

* The names of the Figures of Diction are from the Greek, as follows: 
* Prosthesis, from Prostithemi, to prefix. 
t Epentithemi, to put in or insert. 
X Paragb, to lengthen out. 
6 rfphaireo, to take away. 
f Sunkoptd, to cut out. 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF POEMS. 241 

tiixti, for dixisti ; deum, for deorum. If from the end, Aiocope ;TT 
us, viden\ for videsne ; Antoni, for Antonii. 

3. When a letter or syllable is transposed, it is called Metathe- 
sis ;** as, pistris, for prislis ; Lybia, for Libya. When one letter 
is put for another, it is called Antithesis ;ff as, faciundum, for 
faciendum; olli, for illi ; voltis, for vultis. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF POEMS. 

Any work composed in verse is called a Poem,, (Poema, or Carmen.) 
Poems are called by various names, from their subject, their form, the man- 
ner of treating the subject, and their style. 

1. A poem on the celebration of a marriage is called an EPITHALAMIUM ; 
on a mournful subject, an ELEGY or LAMENTATION ; in praise of the Su- 
preme Beinas a HYMN ; in praise of any person or thing, a PANEGYRIC or 
ENCOMIUM; on the vices of any one, a SATIRE or INVECTIVE ; a poem 
to be inscribed on a tomb, an EPITAPH, &c. 

2. A short poem adapted to the lyre or harp, is called an ODE, whence such 
compositions are called Lyric poems : a poem in the form of a letter is called an 
EPISTLE; a short witty poem, playing on the fancies or conceits which arise 
from any subject, is called an epigram; as those of Catullus and Martial. A 
sharp unexpected lively turn of wit in the end of an epigram, is called its Point. 
A poem expressing the moral of any device or picture, is called an EMBLEM. 
A poem containing an obscure question to be explained, is called an ^ENIGMA 
or RIDDLE. 

When a character is described, so that the first letters of each verse, and 
sometimes the middle and final leters, express the name of the person or thing 
described, it is called an~ACROSTIC ; as the following on our Savior: 
I nter cuncta micans I gniti sidera cod I, 
E xpellit tenebras E toto Pliabus ut orb E; 
S ic ccecas rcmovet JESVS caliginis umbra S, 
V ivjficansque simul V ero prcecordia mot V, 
S olem justitice, S ese probat esse bead S. 

3. From the manner of treating a subject, a poem is either Exegetic, Dra- 
matic, or Mixt. 

The Exegetic, where the poet always speaks himself, isnf three kinds, His- 
torical, Didactic, or Instructive, (as the Satire or Epistle) ; and Descriptive. 

Of the Dramatic^ the chief kinds are COMEDY, representing the actions of 
ordinary life, generally with a happy issue; and TRAGEDY, representing the 
actions and distresses of illustrious personages, commonly with an unhappy is- 
sue. To which may be added Pastoral poems, or BUCOLICS, representing the 
actions and conversations of shepherds ; as most of the eclogues of Virgil. 

The Mixt kind is where the poet sometimes speaks in his own person, and 
sometimes makes other characters to speak: K Of this kind is chiefly the EPIC 
or HEROIC poem, which treats of some one great transaction of some great 
illustrious person, with its various circumstances ; as the wrath of Achilles in 
the Iliad of Horner; the settlement of ^Eneas in Italy, in the JEneid of Virgil; 
the fall of man in the Paradise Lost of Milton, &c. 

4. The style of poetry, as of prose, is of three kinds, the simple, ornate, and 
sublime. 

COMBINATION OF VERSES IN POEMS. 

In long poems, there is commonly but one kind of verse used. 
Thus Virgil, Lucretius, Horace in his Satires and Epistles, Ovid m 
his Metamorphoses, Lucan, Silius Italicus, Valerius Flaccus, Juve- 
nal, &c. always use Hexameter verse ; Plautus, Terence, and other 

IT jfpokopto, to cut off* 

** Metatithemi, to transfer or transpose 

ft •Antitithimi, to place instead of. 

V 



242 COMBINATION OF VERSUS IN PQE3IS. 

writers of Comedy, generally use the Iambic, and sometimes thg 
Trochaic. It is chiefly in shorter poems, particularly those which 
are called Lyric poems, as, the odes of Horace and the Psalms of 
Buchanan, that various kinds of verse are combined. 

A poem which has only one kind of verse, is called by a Greek 
name, Monocolon, sc. poema, v. carmen ; or Monocolos, sc. ode, 
from the Greek monos, alone ; and kolori^ a member ; (and so of the 
other, with dis, twice, tris, thrice) ; that which has two kinds, Di- 
colon ; and that which has three kinds of verse, Tricolon. 

If the same sort of verse return after the second line, it is called 
Dicolon Distrophon ; as when a single Pentameter is alternately 
placed after an Hexameter, which is named Elegiac verse, (carmen 
Elegiacum), because it was first applied to mournful subjects ; thus* 

Flebilis indignos, Elegeia solve capillos; 

Ah! nimis ex vero, nunc tibi nomen erit. Ovid. 
This kind of verse is used by Ovid in all his other works except 
the Metamorphoses ; and also for the most part by Tibullus, Proper* 
this, &c. 

When a poem consists of two kinds of verse, and after three lines 
returns to the first, it is called Dicolon Tristrophon ; when after 
four lines, Dicolon Tetrastrophon ; as, 

Auream quisquis mediocrilatem 

Diligit, tutus caret obsoleti 

Sordibus tecti, caret invidenda 

Sobrius aula. Horat. 

When a poem consists of three kinds of verse, and after three 
lines always returns to the first, it is called Tricolon Tristrophon ; 
buUif it returns after four lines, it is called Tricolon Tetrastrophon ; 
as, when after two greater dactylic alcaic verses are subjoined an 
archilochian iambic and a lesser dactylic alcaic, which is named Car- 
men Horatianum, or Horatian verse, because it is frequently used 
by Horace ; thus, 

Virtus recludens immeritis rnori 
Ceelum, negata tentat iter via; 
Ccetusque vulgares, et udam 
Spernit humum fugiente penna. 

Any one of these parts of a poem or ode, in which every different 
kind of its measure or verse is comprehended, when taken by itself 
is called a Strophe, Stanza, or Staff, from the Greek strophe, a 
turning ; as at the end of the stanza you turn again to the same 
kind of verse. 

Horace, in his Lyric compositions, uses twenty species of metre 
combined into nineteen different stanzas; and as in the approved 
editions of this poet, the method of scanning these is generally ex- 
plained at the beginning of each ode and epode, any additional sy- 
nopsis or key of the Horatian Metres to that which follows, is deem- 
ed quite unnecessary. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE IN HORACE AND BUCHANAN. 

I. Odes and Psalms of one kind of verse. 

1. Asclepiadean, See No. 3. p. 270. Hor. L 1. IV. 8. IE. 30. 

Buch. Ps;28, 40, 80. 



DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE. 243 

% Choriambic Alcaic Pentameter, consisting of a spondee, three 
•choriambuses, and a pyrrhichius or iambus : Hor. I. 11. 18. IV. 10. 

3. Iambic Trimeter, No. 11.— — Hor. Epod. 17.- Buch. Ps. 25, 

94, 106. 

4. Hexameter, No. 1. Hor. Satires and Epistles. Buch. Ps. 1, 

18, 45, 78, 85, 89, 104, 107, 132, 135. 

5. Iambic Dimeter, No. 12. Buch. Ps. 13, 31, 37, 47, 52, 54, 

59, 86, 96, 98, 117, 148, 149, 150. 

6. The Greater Dactylic Alcaic, No. 8. Buch. Ps. 26, 29, 32, 

49,61,71,73,143. ' 

7. Trochaic, consisting of seven trochees and a syllable ; admit- 
ting also a tribrachys in the uneven places, i. e. in the first, third, 
fifth, and seventh foot ; artd in the even places, a tribrachys, spondee, 
dactyle, and anapestus. Buch. Ps. 105, 119, 124, 129. 

8. Anapestic, consisting of four anapestuses, admitting also a spon- 
dee or dactyle ; and in the last place, sometimes a tribrachys, amphi- 
macer, or trochee. Ps. 113. 

9. Anacreontic Iambic, consisting of three iambuses and a sylla- 
ble : in the first foot it has sometimes a spondee or anapestus ; and 
ulso a tribrachys. Ps. 131. 

II. Odes and Psalms of two kinds of verse following one another 
alternately. 

1. Glyconian and Asclepiadean, No. 4. and 3. — Hor. I. 3, 13, 19, 
36. III. 9, 15, 19, 24, 25, 28. IV. 1, 3. Buch. Ps. 14, 35, 43. 

2. Every first line, (Dactylico- Trochaic,) consisting of the first 
four feet of an hexameter verse, then three trochees or a spondee for 
the last ; every second verse (Iambic Archilochian) consisting of an 
iambus or spondseus, an iambus, a caesura, and then three trochees. — 
Hor. L 4. 

3. The first line Hexameter ; and the second, Alcmanian Dacty- 
lic, consisting of the four last feet of an hexameter. Hor. I. 7, 28. 
Epod. 12. Buch. Ps. 4, 111. 

4. Every first line, Aristophanic, consisting of a choriambus, and 
bacchius or amphimacer: every second line, Choriambic Alcaic, 
consisting of epitritus secundus, two choriambuses, and a bacchius. 
Hor. I. 8. 

5. The first line, (Trochaic,) consisting of three trochees, and a 
caesura ; or of an amphimacer and two iambuses. The second line, 
Archilochian Iambic, No. 9. Hor. II. 18. 

6. The first line, Hexameter ; the second (Dactylic Archilochian) 
two dactyles and a caesura, Hor. IV. 7. — —Buch. Ps. 12. 

7. The first line, Iambic Trimeter : and the second, Iambic Di- 
meter, No. 11.— Hor. Epod. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. Buch. Ps. 

3, 6, 10, 21, 22, 27, 34, 38, 39, 41, 44, 48, 53, 62, 74, 76, 79, 87, 92. 
110, 112, 115, 120, 127, 133, 134, 139, 141. 

8. The first line, Iambic Dimeter ; the second, (Sapphic) consists 
of two dactyles, a caesura, and four iambuses, admitting also a spon- 
deus, &c. But this verse is commonly divided into two parts : the 
first, tfie latter part of a pentameter, No. 2, and the second, iambic 
dimeter, No. 11. Hor. Epod. 11. 

9. The first line, Hexameter : the second, Iambic Dimeter. Hor, 
Epod. 14, 15. Buch. Ps. 81. 



244 DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERSE. 

10. Hexameter and Iambic Trimeter. Hor. Epod. 16. Buch. 

Ps. 2, 20, 24, 57, 60, 69, 83, 93, 95, 97, 108, 109, 118, 126, 136, 137. 

11. The first line, Sapphic, No. 5. and the second, Iambic Dime- 
ter, No. 11. Buch. Ps. 8. 

12. Sapphic and Glyconian. Buch. Ps. 33, 70, 121, 142. 

13. Iambic, Trimeter, and Pentameter. Buch. Ps. 36, 63. 

14. The first line, Hexameter : and the second line, the three last 
feet of an hexameter, with a long syllable, or two short syllables be- 
fore. Buch. Ps. 68. 

15. Hexameter and Pentameter, or Elegiac verse. Buch. Ps. 

88, 114, 137. 

16. The first line, (Trochais,) three trochees and a syllable, ad* 
mitting sometimes a spondee, tribrachys, &c. The second line, Iam- 
bic Dimeter, No. 11. Buch. Ps. 100. 

III. Odes and Psalms of two kinds of verse, and three or four 
lines in each stanza. 

1. The three first lines, Sapphic, and the fourth, Adonian, No. 5. 
Horat. Carm. 1, 2, 10, 12, 20, 22, 25, 30, 32, 38. II. 2, 4, 6„8, 10, 

16. III. 8, 11. 14, 18, 20, 22, 27. IV. 2, 6, 11, Carmen Secul. 

Buch. Ps. 5, 17, 51, 55, 6b, 67, 72, 90, 101, 103. 

2. The three first lines, Asclepiadean, and the fourth, Glyconian, 

Hor. Carm. I. 6, 15, 24, 33. II. 12. III. 10, 16. IV. 5, 12. 

Buch. Ps. 23, 42, 75, 99, 102, 144. 

3. The two first lines, Ionic Trimeter, consisting' of three Ionici 
minores ; the third line, Ionic Tetrameter, having one Ionicus mi* 
nor more. Hor. III. 12. 

4. The two first lines have four trochees, admitting, in the second 
foot, a spondee, dactyle, &c. The third line the same ; only want* 
ing a syllable at the end. Buch. Ps. 66. 

5. The three first lines, Glyconian, No. 4, admitting also a spon- 
dee, or iambus, in the first foot ; the fourth line, Pherecratian, No> 
6. Buch. Ps. 116, 122, 128. 

IV. Odes and Psalms of three kinds of verse, and three or four- 
lines in each stanza. 

1. The two first lines, Asclepiadean, No. 3, the third line, Phere- 
cratian, No. 6, and the fourth, Glyconian, No. 4. Hor. Carm. I. 5, 
14, 21, 23. III. 7, 13. IV. 13." Buch. Ps. 9, 64, 84, 130. 

2. The twoiines, the Greater Dactylic Alcaic, No. 8. The third, 
Archilochian Iambic, No. 9. The fourth, the Lesser Alcaic, No. 
10. Hor. Carm. I. 9, 16, 17, 26, 27, 29, 31, 34, 35, 37. II. 1, 3, 5, 
7, 9, 11, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20. III. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 17, 21, 23, 26, 

29. IV. 4, 9, 14, 15. Buch. Ps. 7, 11, 15, 19, 30, 46, 50, 56, 58, 

77, 82, 91, 123, 125, 140, 146. 

3. The first line, Glyconian ; the second, Asclepiadean ; the 
third a spondee, three choriambuses, and an iambus, or pyrrhichius. 
Buch. Ps. 16. 

4. The first line, Hexameter ; the second, Iambic Dimeter ; and 
the third, two dactyles and a syllable ; Hor. Epod. 13. — —Buch. Ps. 
138. Sometimes the two last verses are joined in one, or inverted ; 
as, Buch. Ps. 145. 



ENGLISH VERSE. 245 

ENGLISH VERSE. 

The quantity of syllables in English verse is not precisely ascer- 
tained. With regard to this, we are chiefly directed by the ear. 
Our monosyllables are generally either long or short, as occasion re- 
quires. And in words of two or more syllables, the accented sylla- 
ble is always long. 

Of English verse there are two kinds, one named Rhyme, and the 
other Blank verse. 

In rhyme the lines are usually connected two and two, sometimes 
three and three, in the final syllables. Two lines following one an- 
other thus connected, are called a Couplet ; three lines, a Triplet. 

In blank verse similarity of sound in the final syllables is care- 
fully avoided. 

In measuring most kinds of English verse, we find long and short 
syllables succeeding one another alternately ; and therefore the ac- 
cents should rest on every second syllable. 

The feet by which English verse is commonly measured, are 
either Iambic, i. e. consisting of a short and a long syllable ; as, 
aloft, create ; or Trochaic, i. e. consisting of a long and a short syl- 
lable ; holy, lofty. In verses of the former kind the accents are to 
be placed on the even syllables ; in the latter, on the odd syllables. 
But the measure of a verse in English is most frequently determined 
by its ^number of syllables only, without dividing them into particu- 
lar feet 

1. Iambic measure comprises verses, 

1. Of four syllables, or of two feet ; as, 

With ravish'd ears, 

The monarch hears. Dryden. 

2. Of six syllables, or of three feet ; as, 

Aloft in awful state, 

The godlike hero sat. Dryden. 

3. Of eight syllables, or of four feet ; as, 

While dangers hourly round us rise, 

No caution guards us from surprise. Francis'' Horace, 

4. .Of ten syllables, or of five feet, which is the common measure 
of heroic and tragic poetry ; as, 

Poetic fields encompass me around, 

And still I seem to tread on classic ground; 

For here the muse so oft her harp has strung, 

That not a mountain rears its head unsung. Addison. 

Obs. 1. In measures of this last sort, we sometimes find the last line of a couplet 
©r triplet stretched out to twelve syllables, or six feet, which is termed an Alexan- 
drine verse; thus, 

A needless Alexandrine ends the song. 

Which, like a wounded Snake, drags its slow length along. Pope. 

Waller was smooth; but Dryden taught to join ") 

The varying verse, the full resounding line, ^ 

The long majestic march, and energydivine. J Pope. 

We also find the last verse of a triplet stretched out to fourteen syllables, or seven 
feet, but then it has commonly an Alexandrine verse before it; thus, 
For thee the land in fragrant fiow'rs is drest; "] 

For thee the ocean smiles, and smoothes her wavy breast, S 
And heav'n itself with more serene and purer light is blest. J Dryden. 
Sometimes also, when there is no Alexandrine before it ; thus, 

V2 



246 ENGLISH VERSE. 

At length by fate to pow'r divine restor'd, "J 

His thunder taught the world to know its lord, S- 
The god grew terrible again, and was again ador'd. J Roue. 
Obs. 2. The more strictly Iambic these verses are, the more harmonious. In seve- 
ral of them, however, particularly in those of ten syllables, we often meet with a 
trochee, and likewise a spondee, instead of an iambus. Verses of heroic measure 
sometimes also admit a dactyle, or an anapestus, in place of the iambus; in which 
case a verse of five feet may comprehend eleven, twelve, thirteen, and even fourteen 
syllables; thus, 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Jl 12 13 14 
And many an humorous, many an amorous lay, 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 
Was sung by many a bard, on many a day. 
This manner of writing every syllable fully is now generally used by the best 
poets, and S2ems much more proper than the ancient custom of cutting off vowels by 
an apostrophe. Our language abounds too much in consonants of itself; the elision 
of vowels therefore should be avoided as much as possible, and ought only to be ad- 
mitted where it is absolutely necessary; as, o'er, for over; e'er, for ever, &x. The 
same observation may be applied to every kind of measure. 

II. Trochaic measitre comprises verses,' 

1. Of three syllables ; as, 

Dreadful gleams, 

Dismal screams, &c. Pope. 

2. Of five syllables ; as, 

In the days of old, 
Stories plainly told. 
Lovers felt annoy. 

3. Of seven syllables ; as, 

Fairest piece of well-form'd earth, 

Urge not thus your haughty birth. Waller. 

These are the measures which are "most commonly used in Eng- 
lish poetry, especially those of seven, eight, and ten syllables. 

We have another measure very quick and lively, and therefore 
much used in songs, which may be called Anapestic measure, i. e. a 
verse consisting of feet of three syllables, two short and one long, in 
which the accent rests upon every third syllable. Verses of anapes- 
tic measure consist of two, three, or four feet ; that is, of six, nine, 
or twelve syllables ; thus, 

Let the loud trumpets sound, 

Till the roofs all around, 

The shrill echoes rebound. Pope. 
From the plains, from the woodlands, and groves, 
How the nightingales warble their loves! Shenstone 
May I govern my passions with absolute sway, 
And grow wiser and better as life wears away. Id. 

In this measure a syllable is often retrenched from the firstfoot ; as, 

The sword or the dart, 

Shall pierce my sad heart. Addison. 

Ye shepherds so cheerful and gay, 

Whose flocks never carelessly roam, &e, 
I vow'd to the muses my time and my care, 
Since neither could win me the smiles of the fair. Shenstone. 

These measures are variously combined together in Stanzas, par- 
ticularly in short poems ; for generally, in longer works, the same 
measure is always observed. 

Stanzas are composed of more or fewer verses, and these various^* 
diversified, according to the nature of the subject, and the taste of the 
poet. But when they are stretched out to a great length, and consist 
of verses of many different measures, they are seldom agreeable. 



ENGLISH VERSE, 



247 



Such poems as consist of Stanzas which are not confined to a cer- 
tain number of verses, nor the verses to a certain number of sylla- 
bles nor the rhymes to a certain distance, are called Irregular or 
Pindaric odes; Of this kind are several of the poems of Cowley. 
But in the odes of later authors, the numbers are exact, and the 
strophes regular. . . 

Stanzas of four lines are the most frequent, in which the nrst 
verse answers to the third, and the second to the fourth. There is a 
stanza of this kind, consisting of verses of eight and of six syllables 
alternately, which is very often used, particularly in sacred poetry. 
Here, for the most part, the second and fourth lines only rhyme to- 
gether; as, 

When all thy mercies, O my God, 

Mv rising soul surveys, 
Transported with the view, I'm lost 
In wonder, love, and praise. Addison. 

Sometimes also the first and third lines answer to one another; as, 

Keep silence, all created things, 

And wait your Maker's nod : 
The muse stands trembling, while she sings 

The honors of her God. Watts. 

This stanza is used in place of what anciently was comprehended 
in two verses, each consisting of fourteen syllables, having a pause- 
after the eighth syllable. / \ - 

Several of these measures are often varied by double endmgs, that 
is, by putting an additional short syllable at the end of the verse ; as, 
L In heroic measure, or verses of ten syllables, both in blank 
verse and rhyme. 

In Blank verse. 
'Tis heaven itself that points out an hereafter, Jlddison. 
In Rhyme, where it is called Double Rhyme. 

The piece, you think, is incorrect? Why, take it; 

I'm all submission ; what you'd have it, make it. Pop*. 

2. In verses of eight syllables. 

They neither added nor confounded, 
They neither wanted nor abounded. 

3. In verses of six syllables. 

'Twas when the seas were roaring, 

With hollow blasts of wind, 

A damsel lay deploring, 

AH on a rockreclin'd. Gay, 

4. In verses of seven syllables. 

As Palemon, unsuspecting, 
Prais'd the sly musician's art; 
Love, his light disguise rejecting, 
Lodg'd an arrow in his heart. Shenstcnt. 

5. In verses of three syllables. 

Glooms inviting, 

Birds delighting. Addison. 

6. In the Anapcestic measure. 

Ah! friend, 'tis but idle to make such a pother, 

Fate, fate has ordain'd us to plague one another. Bienstone, 

Now with furies surrounded, 

Despairing, confounded. Pope. 

Double rhyme is used chiefly in poems of wit and humor, 0* ift 
burlesque compositions. 



248 POINTS, CAPITALS, &C. 

Verses with double endings, in blank verse, most frequently occur 
in tragic poetry, where they often have a fine effect"; thus, 

I here devote me for my prince and country; 

Let them be safe, and let me nobly perish. Thomson. 

The dropping dews fell cold upon my head, 

Darkness inclos'd, and the winds whistled round me. Otway. 



APPENDIX. 

Of Punctuation, Capitals, Abbreviations, Numerical Characters, Division of the 
Roman Months, and of Coins. 
The different divisions of discourse are marked by certain characters called 
Points. 

The points employed for this purpose are the Comma (,), Semicolon (;), 
Colon (:), Period, Punctum, or full stop (.). 

Their names are taken from the different parts of the sentence which they 
are employed to distinguish. 

The Period is a whole sentence complete by itself. The Colon, or member, is a 
ehief constructive part, or greater division of a sentence. The Semicolon, or half- 
member, is a less constructive part, or subdivision, of a sentence or number. The 
Comma, or segment, is the least constructive part of a sentence, in this way of con- 
eidering it; for the next subdivision of a sentence would be the resolution of it into 
Phrases and Words. 

To these points may be added the Semiperiod, or less point, followed by a small let- 
ter. But this is of much the same use with the Colon, and occurs only in Latin books. 
A simple sentence admits only of a full point at the end; because its general mean- 
ing cannot be distinguished into parts. It is only in compound sentences that all 
the different points are to be found. 

Points likewise express the different pauses which should be observed in a just 
pronunciation of discourse. The precise duration of each pause, or note, cannot he 
denned. It varies according to the different subjects of discourse, and the different 
turns of human passion and thought. The period requires a pause in duration 
double of the colon; the colon double of the semicolon ; and the semicolon double 
of the comma. 

There are other points, which, together with a certain pause, also denote a 
different modulation of the voice, in correspondence with the sense. These 
are the Interrogation point (?), the Exclamation or Admiration point (!), and 
the Parenthesis (). The first two generally mark an elevation of the voice, and 
a pause equal to that of a semicolon, colon, or a period, as the sense requires. 
The Parenthesis usually requires a moderate depression of the voice, with a 
pause somewhat greater than a comma. But these rules are liable to many ex- 
ceptions. The modulation of the voice in reading, and the various pauses, must 
always be regulated by the sense. 

Besides the points, there are several other marks made use of in books, to 
denote references and different distinctions, or to point out something remark- 
able or defective, &c. These are, the Apostrophe ('); Asterisk (*); Hyphen 
( - ) ; Obelisk ( t ) ; Double Obelisk ( %) ; Parallel Lines ( I! ) ; Paragraph ( 11 ) ; Sec- 
tion (§); Quotation («' "); Crotchets []; Brace ( }); Ellipsis (...or — ); Caret 
(A); which last is only used in writing. 
References are often marked by letters and figures. 

Capitals, or large letters, are used at the beginning of sentences, of verses, 
and of proper names. Some use them at the beginning of every substantive 
noun. Adjectives, verbs, and other parts of speech, unless they be emphatical, 
commonly begin with a small letter. 

Capitals, with a point after them, are often put for whole words ; thus, A. 
marks Aulus, C. Caius, D. Decimus, L. Lucius, M. Marcus, P.Publius, Q. Quinc* 
this, T.Titus. So F. stands for Filius, and N. for Nepos; as M. F. Marci Filius, 
M. N. Marci Nepos. In like manner P. C. marks Palres Conscripii; S. C. Se- 
nates Consultum; P. R. Populus Romanus ; S. P. Q. R. Senatus Populusque 
Romanus ; U. C. Urbs Condita ; S. P. D. Salutem Plurimam dicit ; D. D. D. 
Dai, dicat, dedicat ; D. D. C. Q. Dot, dicat, eonsecratque ; H. S. written corruptly 
for I/. L. S. Sestertius, equal in value to two pounds of brass and a half; the 
two pounds being marked by L. L. Libra, Libra, and the half by S. Semis. So 
in modern books, A. D. marks Anno Domini, A. M. Arlium Magister, Master 



DIVISION OF THE ROMAN MONTHS, 249 

of Arts ; M. D. Medicines Doctor ; LL. D. Legum Doctor ; N. B. Nota Bene ; 
A. B. Artium Baccalaureus ; R. S. S. Regies Societatis Socius, Fellow of the 
Royal Society ; S. T. r. Sanctce Theologies Professor ; V. D. M. Verbi Dei Min- 
ister, &c. 

Capitals inverted stand for the proper names of women : as, • j\[ for Marcia ; 
•3 for Caia ; 'j foriLucia, &c. 

Sometimes a smsR letter or two is added to the capital; as, Etc. Et catera; 
Ap. Appius; Cn. Cneius; Op. Op iter ; Sp. Spurius ; Ti. Tiberius; Sex. Sexlus; 
Cos. Consul; Coss. Consules ; Imp. Imperator ; Impp. Imperatores. 

In like manner in English, Esq. Esquire ; Dr. Debtor or Doctor ; Acct. Ac- 
count; MS. Manuscript; MSS. Manuscripts; Do. Ditto; Rt. Hon. Right Hon- 
orable, &c. 

Small letters are likewise often put as abbreviations of a word ; as, i. e. id 
est; h. e. hoc est; e. g. exempli gratia ; v. g. verbi gratia. 

Several capitals were used by the ancient Romans to mark numbers, as ap- 
pears under Numeral Adjectives, page 58. But in their notation, they also fur- 
ther combined C and I as follows: 

A thousand is marked thus, cio., which, in later times, was contracted into M. 
Five hundred is marked thus, 10., or, by contraction, d. 

The annexing of o to 10. makes its value ten times greater; thus, 100. marks 
Jive thousand ; and iodo. jiffy thousand. 

The prefixing of c, together with the annexing of o to the number of cio. 
makes its value ten times greater; thus ccioo. denotes ten thousand; and 
CCCI030. a hundred thousand. The ancient Romans, according to Pliny, pro- 
ceeded no farther in this method of notation. If they had occasion to express a 
larger number, they did it by repetition; thus, ccciooo. ccciooo.* signified two 
hundred thousand, &c. 

We sometimes find thousands expressed by a straight line drawn over the 
fop of the numerical letters. Thus, — denotes three thousand ; — ten thou- 
sand, m. x. 

But the modern manner of marking numbers is much more simple, by these 
ten characters or figures, which, from the ten fingers of the hands, were called 
Digits; 1 one, 2 two, 3 three, 4 four, 5 five, 6 six, 7 seven, 8 eight, 9 nine, 
naught, nothing. The first nine are called Significant figures. The last is 
called a Cipher. 

Significant figures placed after one another increase their value ten times at 
every remove from the right hand to the left; thus, 

8 Eight. 85 Eighty-five. 856 Eight hundred and fifty-six. 8566 Eight thou- 
sand five hundred and sixty-six. 

When ciphers are placed at the right hand of a significant figure, each cipher 
increases the value of the figure ten times ; thus, 

1 One. 10 Ten. 100 A hundred. 1000 A thousand. 2 Two. 20 Twenty. 
200 Two hundred. 2000 Two thousand. 

Ciphers are often intermixed with significant figures, thus, 20202, Twenty 
thousand two hundred and two. 

The superiority of the present method of marking numbers over that of the 
Romans, will appear by expressing the present year both in letters and figures* 
and comparing them together; cio,ioccxcviii, or m.dccxcviii. 1798. 

As the Roman manner of marking the days of their months was quite difler* 
ent from ours, it may perhaps be of use here to give a short account of it. 

Division of the Roman Months. 

The Romans divided their months in three parts, by Kalends, Nones, and Ides. 
The first day of every month was called the Kalends; the fifth day was called 
the Nones; and the thirteenth day was~ called the Ides; except in the months 
of March, May, July, and October, in which the nones fell upon the seventh 
day, and the ides on the fifteenth. 

In reckoning the days of their months, they counted backwards. Thus, the 
first day of January was marked Kalendis Januariis, or Januarii, or by con- 
traction, Kal. Jan. The last day of December, Pridie Kalendas Januarias or 
Januarii, scil. ante. The day before that, or the 30th day of December, Tertio 
Kal. Jan. scil. die ante; or Ante diem tertium Kal. Jan. The twenty-ninth day 
of December, Quarto Kal. Jan. And so on, till they came back to the thir^ 



250 



DIVISION OF THE ROMAN MONTHS. 



teenth day of December, or to the ides, which were marked Idibus Decenibri* 
bus, or Decembris : the day before ihe ides, Pridie Idus Dec. scil. ante: the day 
before that, Terlio, Id. Dec. and so back to the nones, or the fifth day of the 
month, which was marked Nonis Decembribus or Decembris: the day before 
the nones, Pridie Non.Dec. &c. and ihus through all the months of the year. 

IT Thus we see the Romans did not,*in computing time, begin at 1, the first, 
and go to 30 or 31, the last of the month, as we do; but they counted back- 
wards from three fixed periods or points, beginning at the Kalends, always the 
first day of every month. 

And in reckoning from any given point, as the Nones, (e. gr.) they included 
that point: thus, terlio Nonas Aprilis, the third day before the nones of April, 
(i. e. before the fifth,) is not the second of April, but the third. Hence, to calcu- 
late the day of the month, use this rule: 

Add one to that number from which the substraction is to be made, as in the 
above example : 5 -f* f — 3 equal 3, the third day of April. 

But if the reckoning is to be made from the Kalends of the following month, 
add two to the number of days in the current month for the Minuend : thus, 
Sexto Kalendas Octobris, is the 2Gth of September, the current month of 30 
days : for 30 + 2—6, eq ual 26. 

Kalends are named from Colo, to call. The Nones, from there being ninedays^ 
inclusive, between them and the Ides; and the Ides are from iduo, to divide. 

To facilitate the calculation of dates, as expressed in the Classics; and to 
show the correspondence between the Roman computation of the days of their 
month and our own, we subjoin the following 

TABLE: 





Days 


March, May, July 


January, August, 


April, June, Sep- 
tember, and No- 


February has 28, 




of our 


and October, 


and December, 


vember, each 


and in Leap-year 




Mths. 


have each 31 days. 


each 31 days. 


30 days. 


29 days. 




1 


Kalendis. 


Kalendis. 


Kalendis. 


Kalendis. 




2 
3 
4 


6) 

. > Ante Nonas. 


J j Ante Nonas. 
Pridie Nonas. 


2 Ante Nonas. 
Pridie Nonas. 


o \ Ante Nonas. 
Pridie Nonas. 






5 


3) 


Nonis. 


Nonis. 


Nonis. 




6 


Pridie Nonas. 


8 ] 


81 


81 




7 
8 
9 
10 
11 


Nonis. 

81 

1 Ante Idus, 

" y before the 


J Ante Idus, 
£ } before the 
Jj Ides. 


p Ante Idus, 
? V before the 
4 Ide3 ' 
3J 


I Ante Idus, 
e > before the 
\\ Ides. 








32 


4 | Ides. 
3j 


Pridie Idus. 


Pridie Idus. 


Pridie Idus. 




13 


Idibus. 


Idibus. 


Idibus, 




14 


Pridie Idus. 


191 




181 




10 ^ 






15 


Idibus. 


18 




17 




15 






16 


171 




17 




18 




14 






17 


16 




16 




15 




13 






18 


15 




15 




14 




12 






19 
20 


14 
13 




14 
13 


Ante Kalen- 


13 
12 


Ante Kalen- 
das, before 
> the Kalends 
of the month 
following. 


11 

10 


Ante Kalen- 
das, before 




21 


1-2 


Ante Kalen- 


12 


das, before 


11 


9 


the Kalends 




22 


11 


das, before 


11 


> the Kalends 


10 


8 


of March. 




23 


10 


► the Kalends 


10 


of the month 


9 


7 






24 


9 


of the month 


9 


following. 


8 


6 






25 


8 


following. 


8 




7 




5 






26 


7 




7 




6 




4 






27 


6 




6 




5 




3, 






28 


5 




5 




4 




Pridie Kalendas 




29 


4 




4 




3j 




Martias. 




30 


3J 




3. 




Pridie Kalendas, 






31 


Pridie Kalendas, 


Pridie Kalendas, 


of the follow- 








of the follow- 


of the follow- 


ing month. 








ing month. 


in g month. 




' ) 



In Leap-year, that is, when February has twenty-nine days, which happens 
every fourth year, both the 24th and 25th days of that month were marked, 
jSexlo Kalendas MaHii or Martias ; and hence this year is called BissexfUis, 



SOMAN COINS. 251 

JUNIUS, APRILIS, SEPTEMque, NOVEMque tricenoa; 

Unum plus reliqui; FEBRUUS, tenet octo viginti; 

At si bissextus fuerit, superadditur unus. 

Tu primarn mensis lucein die esse kalendas, 

Sex MAIUS, nonas OCTOBER, JULIUS, et MARS, 

Qiiatunr at reliqwi ; dabit idus quilibet octo. 

Omnes post idus luces die esse kalendas, 

Nomen sortiri debent a mense sequenti. 

Thus, the 14th day of April, June, September, and October, was marked 
XVIII. Kal. of the following month; ihe 15th, XVII. Kal. &c. The 14th day 
Of January, August, and December, XIX. Kal. &c. So the 16th day of March, 
May, July, and October, was marked XVII. Kal. &c. And the 14ih day of 
February, XVI. Kal. Martii or Martias. The names of all the months are used 
as Substantives or Adjectives, except Aprilis, which is used only as a Substan- 
tive. 

ROMAN COINS. 

The Romans at first had no coined money, but used a certain 
weight of brass, or other metal, in exchange for commodities. So 
their names of money (as it was at first weighed, not counted) also 
denote weight ; -as do talentum among the Greeks, shekel among the 
Hebrews, and pound with us. 

The principal denominations of Roman money are, the As or JE1&, 
Sestertius, Aureus or Denarius, Pondo or Libra. The weight and 
value of their coins varied in different ages of the empire. 

The As, originally a pound of brass, was divided into twelve parts, 
or uncice ; thus, uncia, an ounce, or --^ of an As ; sextans, 2 oz. or 
-j% ? quadrans, -p^, or 3 oz. ; triens, ~\ ; quincunx, -^ ; semis or 
semissis, ~o 5 septunx, -£> ; bes or bessis, T % ; dodrans, ~ ; dextans 
or decunx, — %', deunx, \\ of an As, or 11 ounces. As was also ap- 
plied to any thing divided into 12 parts, as an acre, an inheritance, 
&c. 

The uncia, was also divided ; thus, semiuncia, half an ounce, or 
tj\ of an ^45 ; duella, \, &c. 

After silver was coined, the As was made at first I , then j^, then 
2V of its original weight, and so on till at last it weighed but half an 
uncia. 

The Denarius, half of which was a quinarius, was originally 
equal to 10 asses. 

The Sestertius was J of a denarius, i. e. two asses and a half, 01 
2 J pounds of brass ; and is frequently denoted by H. S. or L. L. S., 
and also called nummus. 

lobelia, -^ of a Denarius ; Sembella, -^ ; and Teruncius, -^ 
were smaller silver coins. 

The Aureus, or Solid us, was at first equal to two denarii ; but 
afterward was valued at 25 denarii. 

Sestertium, used as the name of a sum, not of a coin, denoted 
always a thousand Sestertii. 

The Talentum, used by the Romans, equalled 24 Sestertia. 

After the Romans coined silver, they kept their accounts in Ses* 
terces, instead of Asses, as at first. 

In computing money by Sestertii, or Sestertia, observe the follow- 
ing rules : 

If a numeral adjective agree with Sestertii, it denotes precisely 
so many sestertii ; as, decern sestertii, ten sesterces : but if the ad- 



252 ROMAN COINS. 

jective agree with sestet tia, it denotes so many thousand sestertii , 
thus, decern sestertia, ten thousand sesterces. 

If a numeral adjective of a different case he joined to the geni- 
tive plural of sestertius, it means so many thousand sestertii ; as, 
decern sestertium, ten thousand sesterces : but if a numeral adverb 
be joined, it means so many hundred thousand ; as, millies sestet' 
Hum, a thousand times a hundred thousand sestertii. 

When the adverb stands by itself, it denotes the same thing ; thus, 
decies implies as much as decies nummum or sestertium ; a million 
of sesterces, for decies centena millia sestertium. 

If letters standing for sums have a bar over them, centena millia 
is understood ; thus, H. S. M. C. is the same with millies centies,\ 
i. e. one hundred and ten millions sestertii ; but H. S. M. C, with-, 
out the line, denotes 1100 sesterces. 

The As or JEs was of brass, sometimes silver ; the Aureus, of j 
gold; the Denarius, Sestertius, and Drachma, were of silver. 

A few Roman Coins in Sterling and Federal Money. 

The Libra contained twelve ounces of silver, and was worth aboi 
£3 sterling, equal to $13 33 cts. 2 m. 

Talent, about £193 sterling, equal to $861 2|cts. 

Mina, £3 4s. 7d. sterling, equal to $14 35 cts. 18 hundredths oj 
cent. 

As or Libella, £0 0s. Od. 3^ qrs. sterling, equal to $0 1 ct 
hundredths of a cent 

; Sestertius, £0 0s. Id. 3| qrs. sterling, equal to $0 3 cts. 58 hi 
dredths, though others say 3f cts. 

Denarius, £0 0s. 7d. 3 qrs. sterling, equal to $0 14 cts. 35 hi 
dredths, though others say about 15 cts. 

Aureus, £0 16s. Id. 3 qrs. sterling, equal to $3 58 cts. 8m. thoi 
some say $3 75 cts. 

Obolus, £0 0s. Id. 1^ qrs. sterling, equal to $0 2 cts. 33 hundred' 
of a cent 

Drachma, equal in value with the Denarius. 



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